1. Gluconeogenesis: The universal pathway for synthesis of glucose. 2. Biosynthesis of glycogen, starch, and sucrose. 3. CO2 fixation in plants (the Calvin Cycle). 4. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism in plants

Teaching assistant: Requirement: Write in English with correct grammar. Expressions made of only keywords piled together are NOT acceptable. Leave no chance for guessing

1. A brief history of understanding protein metabolism; 2. The studies leading to the deciphering of the genetic codes; 3. The pathway leading to the synthesis of a functional protein; 4. Current understanding on protein targeting and degradation

1. Fatty acids; 2. Eicosanoids: 3. Triacylglycerols 4. Membrane phospholipids; 5. Cholesterol, steroids, and isoprenoids;

1. Enzymes were among the first biological macromolecules to be studied chemically 1.1 Much of the early history of biochemistry is the history of enzyme research. 1.1.1 Biological catalysts were first recognized in studying animal food digestion and sugar fermentation with yeast (brewing and wine making)

1. Cells need energy to do all their work To generate and maintain its highly ordered structure (biosynthesis of macromolecules). To generate all kinds of movement. To generate concentration and electrical gradients

1. Biomembranes are organized, sheetlike assemblies consisting mainly of proteins and lipids 1.1 The functions carried out by membranes are diverse and indispensable for life. 1.1.1 Biomembranes give cells their individuality by separating them from the environment

1. Living matter is composed mostly of the lighter elements 1.1 The composition of living matter is strikingly different from that of its physical environment(1810s) 1.2 The elements found in living organisms also exist in nature(especially in seawater and atmosphere)

table 13-1 Some Signals to Which Cells Respond Antigens Cell surface glycoproteins/oligosaccharides Developmental signals Extracellular matrix components Growth factors Hormones Light Mechanical touch Neurotransmitters Odorants

It is beyond the scope of this class to understand the following. If only one equilibration is in effect, the pH of the solution is determined by one Henderson-Hasselbalch equation