Energy and the Relative Stability Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion. Potential energy is stored energy. It exists only when an attractive or repulsive force exists between objects

The primary source of alkanes is petroleum Natural gas consists chiefly of methane, but ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane are also present. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that must be refined into different fraction before it can be used

The different arrangements of atoms caused by rotation about a single bond are called conformations (构象)of the molecule, and a specific conformation is called a conformer (构象异构体, conformation isomer). An analysis of the energy changes that a molecule undergoes as groups rotate about single bonds is called a conformational analysis (构象分析)

An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers is called a racemic form (either a racemate or a racemic mixture). A racemic form shows no rotation of plane￾polarized light

The C—X bond of alkyl halides is polarized. The carbon atom bears a partial positive charge, The halogen atom a partial negative charge

分离过程是将混合物分成组成互不相同的两种或几种产品的操作。 分离操作的作用：①为化学反应提供符合质量要求的原料，清除对反应或催化剂有害的 杂质，减少副反应和提高收率；②对反应产物起着分离提纯作用，以得到合格的产品，并使 未反应的反应物得以循环利用

First order overall (一级反应) The reaction is a unimolecular nucleophilic substitution（单分子亲核取代反应）

There is a group of compounds in which carbon forms only two bonds. These neutral divalent carbon compounds are called carbenes. Most carbenes are highly unstable compounds that are capable of only fleeting existence. Soon after carbenes are formed they usually react with another molecule

How are molecular structures determined? One way is though the use of spectroscopic methods. Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of energy with matter. When energy is applied to matter it can be absorbed, emitted, cause a chemical change, or be transmitted

These spectra are often called carbon magnetic resonance (CMR) spectra or 13C NMR spectra. In some important ways 13C spectra are usually les complex and easier to interpret than proton (1H) NMR spectra