10 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS CHINA'S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 11 tory,and without venturing upon an explanation,it may be strikingly il- as Siam,Sungora,Ligor,Patani,Johore and way stations on the route to lustrated Singapore and the Straits of Malacca.One of the Portugals (Kan-ssu-la, The confusion regarding European countries.The countries of the West- or Castilla),however,was in the northwestern sea,as were also Sweden and ern Ocean were irretrievably confused with one another,even in the official Denmark.The exact location of the Western Ocean (Hsi-yang)was a bit publications of the imperial government.s For example,from medieval hazy since the term had originally been applied to the waters west of Europe via the Arabs had come the term Fo-lang-chi.This was a translitera- Borneo leading into the Indian Ocean,on the ancient western trade route, tion for"Franks,"that is,the Europeans in the Near East at the time of the route which went down the Indo-Chinese-Malayan coast and was to be the Crusades.When the Portuguese traveled to China by sea after I5oo, distinguished from the eastern route through the Philippines and Moluccas. they were identified as Fo-lang-chi because they came from the West.The When the early Europeans used the term Western Ocean to refer to the same term was also applied to the Spanish after their arrival in the Philip- Atlantic it was not illogically objected that the Western Ocean,as known pines in the sixteenth century.Since Portugal was under Spanish rule from to the Chinese,had been sailed through,from end to end,by the great I58o to 1640,this confusion was no doubt inescapable.The arrival of the Ming expeditions under Cheng Ho,without anyone noting a trace of French created a further terminological enigma because of the similarity of Europe.A.compromise was finally worked out by referring to the Indian France and Franks.Time and again Fa-lan-ksi,Fo-lang-hsi,Fu-lang- Ocean as the Little Western Ocean,Hsiao-ksi-yang,while the Atlantic be- hsi and similar transliterations for France were erroneously identified by came the Great Western Ocean,Ta-ksi-yang.Ta-hsi-yang,incidentally,was Chinese scholars with Fo-lang-chi,which now meant the Portuguese-Span- another of the names applied to Portugal.11 ish.Meanwhile,the term Kan-ssu-la for Castilla,the Spanish,had also been The relations between these minuscule kingdoms in the Great Western applied to the Portuguese;in addition,two tribute missions sent by the Ocean were naturally difficult to keep straight,particularly when they were King of Portugal,in 167o and 1727,had been recorded in official Chinese not too permanent in actual fact and were differently described by the works as from two separate countries,Po-erh-tu-ckia-li-ya and Po-erh-tu- patriotic members of each nationality on their visits to Chinese ports. ka-erk.But,in the meantime,the Jesuit missionaries in China had identified This official knowledge of the West was reflected,for example,in a special themselves as coming from Italy,I-ta-li-ya,and yet by their use of the compendium entitled "Illustrations of the Regular Tributaries of the Im- Portuguese settlement of Macao,as a port of entry,had become associated perial Ch'ing"which was compiled by imperial decree during the 175o's.12 with Portugal.Consequently,as late as 1844 the name I-ta-li-ya was being The high officials of the border provinces supplied materials to indicate applied to the Portuguese at Macao,and when a genuine Italian turned how "within and without the empire united under our dynasty,the bar- up in 1848,his country had to be identified as I-ta-li,an entirely new and barian tribes submit their allegiance and turn toward civilization."It is separate country from I-ta-li-ya.9 There were also other ways of referring significant that among these ten elaborate volumes,the great bulk of which to Portugal,in addition to the five just mentioned.It would have taken a dealt with the tribes of Inner Asia and of Southwest China,the first strong mind to identify Fo-lang-chi,Kan-ssu-la,Po-erh-tu-chia-li-ya,Po- volume was devoted to the overseas tributaries.They are listed in the erk-tu-ka-erk,and I-ta-li-ya as all referring to the same small Western regular order:Korea,Liu-ch'iu,Annam,Siam,Sulu,Laos,Burma,and country. Great Western Ocean.The last named,however,is described in twelve Confusion was,of course,not confined to the books.Just as Chinese, plates with text as opposed to twenty-six plates for all the preceding.This Japanese,and Koreans look much the same to the Western man in the is followed by sections on Small Western Ocean,England,France,Sweden, street,so the Westerners in China,as in Japan,were indistinguishable in Holland,Russia,and the Philippines.The European countries occupy their common outlandishness.The colloquial term,Hung-mao-fan,"red- twenty-eight out of seventy-four plates,and are thus considerably more haired barbarians (or foreigners),"was applied to both the Dutch and the prominent than in the antiquated Ch'ing dynasty lists based on Ming English,whose blue eyes,red complexions,beak noses,and tawny hair made sources,in which the European countries are almost lost to view among the them all indiscriminately exotic.10 numerous small states of Southeast Asia and India. Since the Jesuit map of the world had not gained much acceptance in Considering this prominence given the Europeans,it is surprising how China,the native habitat of these Europeans remained shadowy.They all little is recorded in this work concerning them.First of all,there is great arrived by sea from the southwest,and the Collected Statutes of 1818 there- confusion as to the European states.The Great Western Ocean country is fore opined that their homelands were "in the southwestern sea,"the same identified both with Ricci and the Pope and with the Portuguese at Macao.10 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS tory, and without venturing upon an explanation, it may be strikingly il￾lustrated. The confusion regarding European countries. The countries of the West￾ern Ocean were irretrievably confused with one another, even in the official publications of the imperial government.s For example, from medieval Europe via the Arabs had come the term Fo-lang-chi. This was a translitera￾tion for' "Franks," that is, the Europeans in the Near East at the time of the Crusades. When the Portuguese traveled to China by sea after 1500 they were identified as Fo-lang-chi because they came from the West. Th~ s~me ~erm w~s also applied to t~e Spanish after their arrival in the Philip￾pmes m the sIxteenth century. Smce Portugal was under Spanish rule from 1580 to 1640, this confusion was no doubt inescapable. The arrival of the French created a further terminological enigma because of the similarity of Fr~nce a~d. Franks .. Time. and again Fa-lan-hsi, Fo-lang-hsi, Fu-lang￾hsz and SImIlar transhteratIOns for France were erroneously identified by ~hinese scho!ars with Fo-lang-chi, which now meant the Portuguese-Span￾Ish. MeanwhIle, the term Kan-ssu-la for Castilla, the Spanish, had also been a~plied to the Por.tuguese; in addition, two tribute missions sent by the Kmg of Portugal, m 1670 and 1727, had been recorded in official Chinese works as from two separate countries, Po-erh-tu-chia-li-ya and Po-erh-tu￾ka-erh. But, in the meantime, the Jesuit missionaries in China had identified themselves as coming from Italy, I-ta-li-ya, and yet by their use of the P?rtuguese settlement of Macao, as a port of entry, had become associated wIth. Portugal. Consequently, as late as 1844 the name I-ta-li-ya was being apphed to the Portuguese at Macao, and when a genuine Italian turned up in 1848, his country had to be identified as I-ta-li, an entirely new and separate country from I-ta-li-ya. 9 There were also other ways of referring to Portugal, in addition to the five just mentioned. It would have taken a strong mind to identify Fo-lang-chi, Kan-ssu-la, Po-erh-tu-chia-li-ya Po￾erh-tu-ka-erh, and I-ta-li-ya as all referring to the same small W:stern country. Confusion was, of course, not confined to the books. Just as Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans look much the same to the Western man in the street, so the Westerners in China, as in Japan, were indistinguishable in their common outlandishness. The colloquial term, Hung-mao-fan "red￾haired barbarians (or foreigners)," was applied to both the Dutch ~nd the English, whose blue eyes, red complexions, beak noses and tawny hair made them all indiscriminately exotic.10 ' Since the Jesuit map of the world had not gained much acceptance in China, the native habitat of these Europeans remained shadowy. They all arrived by sea from the southwest, and the Collected Statutes of 1818 there￾fore opined that their homelands were "in the southwestern sea," the same CHIN A"S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 11 as Siam, Sungora, Ligor, Patani, Johore and way stations on the route to Singapore and the Straits of Malacca. One of the PortugaIs (Kan-ssu-la, or Castilla), however, was in the northwestern sea, as were also Sweden and Denmark. The exact location of the Western Ocean (Hsi-yang) was a bit hazy since the term had originally been applied to the waters west of Borneo leading into the Indian Ocean, on the ancient western trade route, the route which went down the Indo-Chinese-Malayan coast .and was to be distinguished from the eastern route through the Philippines and Moluccas. When the early Europeans used the term Western Ocean to refer to the Atlantic it was not illogically objected that the Western Ocean, as known to the Chinese, had been sailed through, from end to end, by the great Ming expeditions under Cheng Ho, without anyone noting a trace of Europe. A ,compromise was finally worked out by referring to the Indian Ocean as the Little Western Ocean, Hsiao-hsi-yang, while the Atlantic be￾came the Great Western Ocean, Ta-hsi-yang. Ta-hsi-yang, incidentally, was another of the names applied to Portugal,u The relations between these minuscule kingdoms in the Great Western Ocean were naturally difficult to keep straight, particularly when they were not too permanent in actual fact and were differently described by the patriotic members of each nationality on their visits to Chinese ports. This official knowledge of the West was reflected, for example, in a special compendium. entitled "Illustrations of the Regular Tributaries of the Im￾perial Ch'ing" which was compiled by imperial decree during the 17 50'S.12 The high officials of the border provinces supplied materials to indicate how "within and without the empire united under our dynasty, the bar￾barian tribes submit their allegiance and turn toward civilization." It is significant that among these ten elaborate volumes, the great bulk of which dealt with the tribes of Inner Asia and of Southwest China, the first volume was devoted to the overseas tributaries. They are listed in the regular order: Korea, Liu-ch'iu, Annam, Siam, Sulu, Laos, Burma, and Great Western Ocean. The last named, however, is described in twelve plates with text as opposed to twenty-six plates for all the preceding. This is followed by sections on Small Western Ocean, England, France, Sweden, Holland, Russia, and the Philippines. The European countries occupy twenty-eight out of seventy-four plates, and are thus considerably more prominent than in the antiquated Ch'ing dynasty lists based on Ming sources, in which the European countries are almost lost to view among the numerous small states of Southeast Asia and India. Considering this prominence given the Europeans, it is surprising how little is recorded in this work concerning them. First of all, there is great confusion as to the European states. The Great Western Ocean country is identified both with Ricci and the Pope and with the Portuguese at Macao