8 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS CHINA'S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 0 Chinese historical thinking traditionally looked forward to repetitive categorized and hierarchic Confucian world,the Western merchants who cycles,the expectation that one dynasty would eventually be succeeded reached the east coast of China by sea in modern times were designated, by another was an important factor in political life.Expectations or fears literally,"eastern barbarians"(/).*Being of a different,and therefore in- concerning barbarian conquest were similarly important in the conduct of ferior,culture,they could hardly qualify for any other appellation.Yet foreign relations.In this way the British and other Westerners who moved by this simple fact of terminology they were prejudged and stigmatized into China in the nineteenth century became the heirs of the ages without with the characteristics traditionally assigned to barbarians.In a society knowing it. already stultified by its classical tradition,this ancient designation and the As a first step in exploring this attitude toward the barbarians,let us assumptions which went with it dulled the edge of curiosity and inhibited note the curious alternation between Chinese and barbarian political the Chinese scholar's intellectual response to Western contact. domination of the empire in the four periods of Tang-Sung,Liao-Chin- That the tributary view of the West survived beyond its time in the Yuan,Ming,and Ch'ing.Their sequence has been tabulated by Wittfogel minds of the Chinese literati is evident from any examination of their and Feng as follows:± writings.Official publications of the court,private works,and the memorials of officials who were in contact with the British,American,and French invaders in the 184o's and 185o's all exhibit this stultification.The first TABLE 1.DYNASTIES OF IMPERIAL CHINA type of material,chiefly official compilations of the eighteenth century (221B.C.-A.D.1912) when the Manchu power was at its height,gives one the impression that I.Typically Chinese Dynasties there was little interest in the study of the West.The traditional Chinese II.Dynasties of Conquest (and “Infiltration") idea of the barbarians seems to have been applied to the West,lock,stock I.Ch'in and Han (221 B.C.-A.D.220) and barrel.It is plain from later documents that the traditional terminology 2.The Chinese dynasties during the was so applied.The British minister was called the "English barbarian period of disruption (220-581) chieftain"for twenty years after the first treaties.In Chinese documents 3.Wei (T'o-pa)(386-556)and other the British continually seemed grateful for the emperor's compassion and northern barbarian dynasties directly before and after stood in awe of his name.Like all barbarians,even the British had a sense 4.Sui and T'ang (581-907) of shame at their own uncouthness.Thus the bearers of Western civilization 5.Sung (96o-1279) in the Orient were described to the court at Peking in the terms which were 6.Liao (Ch'i-tan)(9o7-1125) traditional for barbarous tribes like the Burut of Central Asia and the 7.Chin (Jurchen)(1I15-1234) 8.Yuan (Mongol)(I206-1368) Miao-tzu and Lo-lo of China's southwest. 9.Ming(1368-I644) In the latter days of the Ming,Matteo Ricci and his Jesuit colleagues 1o.Ch'ing (Manchu)(1616-1912) had interested the Confucian literati in maps of the world which showed strange countries to the west.Many of the Jesuit transliterations of these During the last thousand years,in short,the Chinese people have been place names have survived in modern Chinese usage.But this new knowl- almost half the time under alien domination.Barbarian rule has been an edge presented to Chinese scholarly circles in the period after 16oo did not integral part of their political life.We may assume that the aggression of survive for long,or at least did not retain its significance,after the estab- the Western barbarians in the nineteenth century seemed to the Chinese of lishment of the Manchu dynasty.It was generally disregarded during the that day to be nothing new in principle,even though in the end it had the eighteenth century.7 This is one of the puzzles of Chinese intellectual his- effect of shattering their traditional polity.This intellectual complacency *In the classical tradition this term had become one of the four generic terms for the barbarians on about the barbarian world was an element of weakness in China's political o(hapbarians o the ast (arbarians on the So heritage. on the West),and Ti (barbarians on the Nortb). Originally,however,the term had not been so restricted to one point of the compass,for the oracle China's conception of the Western barbarians.The concept of Europe bones and ancient bronzes bear inscriptions indicating that there were many types of /on the South, and America which became current in Chinese thought after the beginning East,and West.Similarly,there were several types of Mfan,not merely on the South,but to be found in all the five quarters-East,South,West,North snd Central,while the term Jaoe indicated back- of Western trade in the sixteenth century was certainly as significant as ward tribes in any quarter of the compass,as did the term Ti.One scholat sthat the differ. the trade itself,but has been little studied.Generally speaking,in the highly entiation by the four quarters appeared first in the book of Mo-tzu,after which it became well established in the Han period.il I " i,' II II I t .. 8 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS Chinese historical thinking traditionally looked forward to repetitive cycles, the expectation that one dynasty would eventually he succeeded by another was an important factor in political life. Expectations or fears concerning barbarian conquest were similarly important in the conduct of foreign relations. In this way the British and other Westerners who moved into China in the nineteenth century became the heirs of the ages without knowing it. As a first step in exploring this attitude toward the barbarians, let us note the curious alternation between Chinese and barbarian political domination of the empire in the four periods of T'ang-Sung, Liao-Chin￾Yuan, Ming, and Ch'ing. Their sequence has been tabulated by Wittfogel and Feng as follows: 4 , TABLE 1. DYNASTIES OF IMPERIAL CHINA (221 B.C. -A.D. 1912) I. Typically Chinese Dynasties I. Ch'in and Han (221 B.C. - A.D. 220) 2. The Chinese dynasties during the period of disruption (220-581) 4. Sui and T'ang (581-907) 5. Sung (960-1279) II. Dynasties oj Conquest (and "Infiltration") 3· Wei (T'o-pa) (386-556) and other northern barbarian dynasties directly before and after 6. Liao (Ch'i-tan) (907-II25) 7· Chin (Jurchen) (III5-1234) 8. Yuan (Mongol) (1206-1368) 10. Ch'ing (Manchu) (1616-1912) During the last thousand years, in short, the Chinese people have been almost half the time under alien domination. Barbarian rule has been an integral part of their political life. We may assume that the aggression of the Western barbarians in the nineteenth century seemed to the Chinese of that day to be nothing new in principle, even though in the end it had the effect of shattering their traditional polity. This intellectual complacency about the barbarian world was an element of weakness in China's political heritage. China's conception of the Western barbarians. The concept of Europe and America which became current in Chinese thought after the beginning of Western trade in the sixteenth century was certainly as significant as the trade itself, but has been little studied. Generally speaking, in the highly CHINA'S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 9 categorized and hierarchic Confucian world, the Western merchants who reached the east coast of China by sea in modern times were designated, literally, "eastern barbarians'" (/).a Being of a different, and therefore in￾ferior, culture, they could hardly qualify for any other appellation. Yet by. this simple fact of terminology they were prejudged and stigmatized with the characteristics traditionally assigned to barbarians. In a society already stultified by its classical tradition, this ancient designation and the assumptions which went with it dulled the edge of curiosity and inhibited the Chinese scholar's intellectual response to Western contact. That the tributary view of the West survived beyond its time in the minds of the Chinese literati is evident from any examination of their writings. Official publications of the court, private works, and the memorials of officials :who were in contact with the British, American, and French invaders in the 1840'S and 1850's all exhibit this stultification. The first type of material, chiefly official compilations of the eighteenth century when the Manchu power was at its height, gives one the impression that there was little interest in the study of the West. The traditional Chinese idea of the barbarians seems to have been applied to the West, lock, stock and barrel. It is plain from later documents that the traditional terminology was so applied. The British minister was called the "English barbarian chieftain" for twenty years after the first treaties. In Chinese documents the British continually seemed grateful for the emperor's compassion and stood in awe of his name. Like all barbarians, even the British had a sense of shame at their own uncouthness. Thus the bearers of Western civilization in the Orient were described to the court at Peking in the terms which were traditional for barbarous tribes like the Burut of Central Asia and the Miao-tzu and Lo-Io of China's southwest.6 In the latter days of the Ming, Matteo Ricci and his Jesuit colleagues had interested the Confucian literati in maps of the world which showed strange countries to the west. Many of the Jesuit transliterations of these place names have survived in modern Chinese usage. But this new knowl￾edge presented to Chinese scholarly circles in the period after 1600 did not survive for long, or at least did not retain its significance, after the estab￾lishment of the Manchu dynasty. It was generally disregarded during the eighteenth century.7 This is one of the puzzles of Chinese intellectual his- • In the classical tradition this term had become one of the four generic terms for the barbarians on the four quarters of the compass: I (barbarians on the East), Man (barbarians on the South), Jung (barbarians on the West), and Ti (barbarians on the North). OriginaIly, however, the term I had not been so restricted to one point of the compass, for the oracle bones and ancient bronzes bear inscriptions indicating that there were many types of I, on the South, East, and West. Similarly, there were several types of Man, not merely on the South, but to be found in all the five quarters:"'- East, South, West, North and Central, while the· term Jung indicated back￾ward tribes in any quarter of the compass, as did the term Ti. One scholar suggests that the differ￾entiation by the four quarters appeared first . in the book of Mo-tzu, after which it became weIl established in the· Han period.5