CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS CHINA'S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 7 adjustment to the West must therefore begin with those peculiarities of the in the ports adjusted their lives to Chinese conditions.Your genuine Shang- Chinese state which made it uniquely inadaptable to the Western scheme hailander was really a half-breed,typical of neither East nor West. of things. In the course of decades the new stimuli operating through the treaty The nature of Chinese society and its reponse to the West.The recogni- ports led China into revolution.The response to the West upset traditional tion of China as a society different in structure and character from our own patterns of behavior which went far back into the past.Other great develop- suggests the need of defining and formulating this difference.All Western ments had indeed occurred throughout China's far from static history,but observers since Polo and the early Jesuits have tried to do this,either by down to the nineteenth century they had all remained within a distinctive description or by analysis.I have made my own brief attempt elsewhere.1 and persistent Chinese pattern.Thus repetitive phenomena like the political Here let us note merely that fruitful socio-historical analyses are now being cycle of dynastic disintegration,warlordism,and re-unification had all developed under the general headings of "Oriental Society,""the gentry taken place within the unshaken framework of the Confucian culture. state,"or the like-bodies of theory which are not simple magic formulae Similarly the pattern of China's foreign relations with the barbarians of but rather broad avenues of approach that afford new insights into Chinese Inner Asia had been manifested inside the structure of the universal Con- social behavior.With these has come a fresh appreciation of the role of the fucian monarchy. barbarians of Inner Asia in Chinese history.2 Although Western contact eventually destroyed this old political and All such theories assume,of course,that the record of events is still basic cultural framework,the first phase in China's response to the West was to our understanding.While conceptual schemes can inspire and guide neither inaction nor innovation,but merely repetition of the established research,they are not meant to substitute for it.The meagreness of our pattern of behavior.In short,the first overt Chinese activity in the begin- knowledge of modern China leaves us still in the stage of descriptive por- ning of Sino-Western relations was to apply to the West those traditional traiture.Exactly how the men and events,the personalities and circum- attitudes which were already inbred within the Chinese way of life.This stances,the data and interpretations should be combined to form our picture was to treat the West as though it were not the West at all,but merely a of modern China's contact with the West is a problem of artistic composi- new form of Inner Asian barbarian. tion more than of scientific measurement.Theories are not self-evident, This conditioned reflex made China's adjustment to the West much any more than facts can speak for themselves.Our understanding of China more difficult than it might otherwise have been.If the British barbarians must be accumulated painstakingly and in detail,through monographic re- had been an entirely unprecedented phenomenon in Chinese life,the search on one aspect of the record after another. Manchu rulers of the day might easily have formed a fresh and realistic Not having a final formula for Chinese society,we can hardly invent one view of them.Unfortunately,this was impossible because the British for China's response to the stimulus of Western contact,3 yet certain (Ying-i)were the unwitting inheritors of the status which had been reserved points may be noted.First,in the expansion of the Western state system for barbarians (/in Chinese society since time immemorial.Age-old during recent centuries,the incorporation of China into this nascent world stereotypes took the place of a creative response. order has proved unusually difficult.China's political behavior has not The first step in understanding the Western influence on China is,there- easily been assimilated to that of the West,presumably because of the fore,to understand the traditional role of the barbarian in Chinese society. difference in her institutions.Second,the so-called Western "impact"on The most cursory glance at this subject will indicate that the barbarians of China has been a stimulus rather than a shattering blow.Personal contact Inner Asia had played a constant and,indeed,an integral part,in the long in treaty ports and mission stations,material changes in economic life and history of the Chinese people.Their experience had included not only re- social custom,have led to the eventual metamorphosis of Chinese institu- current phenomena like the dynastic cycle but also the recurrent phenomena tions.But this modernization has been effected by the Chinese people of barbarian conquest.Doubtless these rhythms were not so regular and through the adjustment of their own ways;it has not been simple westerni- uniform as Chinese scribes have liked to assume.Yet the rise and fall of zation.Third,the response has worked both ways.In the hybrid society of dynasties were expected,like the waxing and waning of the seasons,and the treaty ports,Western forms of law,finance,industry,and individualism have formed the main theme of the Chinese dynastic chronicles.Modern his- have been subtly modified:the treaty ports have represented not the torians may be interested less in the obvious existence of these broad Western way of life transplanted to the China coast so much as China's rhythms than in their multiplicity and interaction;China's history gives us accommodation to the Westerner and his ways.The handful of foreigners today an oversupply rather than a lack of patterns.Nevertheless,since6 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS adjustment to the West must therefore begin with those peculiarities of the Chinese state which made it uniquely inadaptable to the Western scheme of things. . The nature of Chinese society and its reponse to the West. The recogni￾tion of China as a society different in structure and character from our own suggests the need of defining and formulating this difference. All Western observers since Polo and the early Jesuits have tried to do this, either by description or by analysis. I have made my own brief attempt elsewhere.1 Here let us note merely that fruitful socio-historical analyses are now being developed under the general headings of "Oriental Society," "the gentry state," or the like - bodies of theory which are not simple magic formulae but rather broad avenues of approach that afford new insights into Chinese social behavior. With these has come a fresh appreciation of the role of the barbarians of Inner Asia in Chinese history.2 All such theories assume, of course, that the record of events is still basic to our understanding. While conceptual schemes can inspire and guide research, they are not meant to substitute for it. The meagreness of our knowledge of modern China leaves us still in the stage of descriptive por￾traiture. Exactly how the men and events, the personalities and circum￾stances, the data and interpretations should be combined to form our picture of modern China's contact with the West is a problem of artistic composi￾tion more than of scientific measurement. Theories are not self-evident, any more than facts can speak for themselves. Our understanding of China must be accumulated painstakingly and in detail, through monographic re￾search on one aspect of the record after another. Not having a final formula for Chinese society, we can hardly invent one for China's response to the stimulus of Western contact,3 yet certain points may be,noted. First, in the expansion of the Western state system during recent centuries, the incorporation of China into this nascent world order has proved unusually difficult. China's political behavior has not easily been assimilated to that of the West, presumably because of the difference in her institutions. Second, the so-called Western "impact" on China has been a stimulus rather than a shattering blow. Personal contact in treaty ports and mission stations, material changes in economic life and social custom, have led to the eventual metamorphosis of Chinese institu￾tions. But this modernization has been effected by the Chinese people through the adjustment of their own ways; it has not been simple westerni￾zation. Third, the response has worked both ways. In the hybrid society of the treaty ports, Western forms of law, finance, industry, and individualism have been subtly modified: the treaty ports have represented not the Western way of life transplanted to the China coast so much as China's accommodation to the Westerner and his ways. The handful of foreigners CHINA'S RESPONSE TO THE WEST 7 in the ports adjusted their lives to Chinese conditions. Your genuine Shang￾hailander was really a half-breed, typical of neither East nor West. In the course of decades the new stimuli operating through the treaty ports led China into revolution. The response to the West upset traditional patterns of behavior which went far back into the past. Other great develop￾ments had indeed occurred throughout China's far from static history, but down to the nineteenth century they had all remained within a distinctive and persistent Chinese pattern. Thus repetitive phenomena like the political cycle of dynastic disintegration, warlordism, and re-unification had all taken place within the unshaken framework of the Confucian culture. Similarly the pattern of China's foreign relations with the barbarians of Inner Asia had been manifested inside the structure of the universal Con￾fucian monarchy. Although Western contact eventually destroyed this old political and cultural framework, the first phase in China's response to the West was neither inaction nor innovation, but merely repetition of the established pattern of behavior. In short, the first overt Chinese activity in the begin￾ning of Sino-Western relations was to apply to the West those traditional attitudes which were already inbred within the Chinese way of life. This was to treat the West as though it were not the West at all, but merely a new form of Inner Asian barbarian. This conditioned reflex made China's adjustment to the West much more difficult than it might otherwise have been. If the British barbarians had been an entirely unprecedented phenomenon in Chinese life, the Manchu rulers of the day might easily have formed a fresh and realistic view of them. Unfortunately, this was impossible because the British (Ying-i) were the unwitting inheritors of the status which had been reserved for barbarians (I) in Chinese society since time immemorial. Age-old stereotypes took the place of a creative response. The first step in understanding the Western influence on China is, there￾fore, to understand the traditional role of the barbarian in Chinese society. The most cursory glance at this subject will indicate that the barbarians of , Inner Asia had played a constant and, indeed, an integral part, in the long history of the Chinese people. Their experience had included not only re￾current phenomena like the dynastic cycle but also the recurrent phenomena of barbarian conquest. Doubtless these rhythms were not so regular and uniform as Chinese scribes have liked to assume. Yet the rise and fall of dynasties were expected, like the waxing and waning of the seasons, and have formed the main theme of the Chinese dynastic chronicles. Modern his￾torians may be interested less in the obvious existence of these broad rhythms than in their multiplicity and interaction; China's history gives us today an oversupply rather than a lack of patterns. Nevertheless, since