percent for dropouts, and interracial marriage still a rarity, edu- tor jobs and often for professional women, who employ and rely cated and employed black women often decide to raise their chil- upon low-income women(disproportionately women of color sional black women are starting to enter interracial relationships, Luttrell. The current rhetoric about work-family conflicts en however, so the alpha generation may change these marriage pat- phasizes personal choices regarding working and/or mothering terns. Meanwhile, Katz and Goldin believe the "marriage gap"re- "but this overlooks the larger mother-care-work crisis caused by inforces an increasingly polarized and unequal socioeconomic en- unequal opportunity, declining social services, and unjust poli vironment for children cies that pit employment demands on wage-poor mothers y "The mothering piece is really the fault line when it comes to against the care needs of their children ss and race, "says ethnographer Wendy Luttrell, author of Not all young women will choose to be mothers(26 percent of Schoolsmart and Mothenwise: Working-Class Women's Identity and Schooling white women born in 196o with a college degree are childless, for (1997). For middle- and upper-class girls and women struggling example), but the majority will. With 72 percent of American to balance rewarding work and family, "the tradeoff is about mothers working outside the home, the work/family challenge is being the perfect mom and doing the perfect job-about being widespread. "From a women's rights point of view, that's still the able to do everything, "she says. But for poor and working-class, biggest hurdle to overcome, "notes Kindlon increasingly single, mothers, "It's not about tradeoffs, it's about, Work/family issues play a significant role in the wage gap How am I going to support my kids and keep them safe? "For Some companies avoid investing in training women who may these women, the challenge is meeting the double-duty demands take time off for maternity and childrearing, according to Bur of mothering and low-wage work, predominantly in service-sec. bank professor of political economy Torben Iversen. Once career From title ix to riot grrrls ODAY'S AMERICAN GIRLS AND YOUNG WOMEN may be on female athletes who made varsity or went on to the Olympics the daughters of feminism, but their world isn't always but on the masses of girls who grew up with the expectation, the one envisioned by their foremothers. "Little girls "Sure, I'll play soccer. Why not?" dress in pink and they're princesses, but at the same time Female sports participation has skyrocketed since Richard theyre going to grow up to wear five-inch heels and kick ass!" Nixon signed Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments to says Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin, an old-school the 1964 Civil Rights Act into law--by 450 percent in college and feminist who wants more equality, not difference, between the an astounding goo percent in high school (to 2.9 million girls)in sexes. The rise of "girl power"and the celebration of"differ- 2005-2006.(Not everyone has benefited as intended. For inner- ence"-propelled by forces ranging from Title IX to feminist city girls, for example, sports fields are often nonexistent and ounk-rock bands--have changed American culture, although schools can't afford the expense of equipment, lessons, and not all girls have benefited equally The struggle for women's rights in the United States is often Furthermore, Title IX is not just about sports. It not only bar described in terms of"waves "First-wave feminism culminated bias(in recruitment, financial aid, benefits, and scholarships) with women's suffrage in 1920, while the resurgent second-wave against either sex in any educational eiving federal aid. feminism of the 1g6os and ' 7os focused on reproductive freedom, it also outlaws sexual harassment and protects equal access to sexual harassment, equal pay, and access to education and jobs. math and science, higher education, career training, technology, The second-wave mother of the girls' movement was Carol Gilli- and employment. Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associate professor gan, formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard in human development and education and the author of Pregnant Graduate School of Education, whose book on women,s psycho- Bodies, Fertile Minds: Gender, Race, and the Schooling of Pregnant Teens gical development, In a Different Voice(1982), inspired countless (2003), notes that"Title IX was also initiated so that pregnant studies on girls and sweeping educational changes. Another sec- girls could stay in school. "(Public schools used to expel preg ond-wave development was Title IX nant students and bar visibly pregnant teachers from clas "My students have been deeply touched by Title IX"and its ex- rooms. "Title IX got rid of the de jure discrimination that pregnant pectation that girls would participate in sports equally to boys, girls cannot be in school, "Luttrell says, "but de facto discrimina- says assistant professor of studies of women, gender, and sexual- tion-either isolating the girls from resources and regular ity and of history and literature Robin Bernstein, when asked classes, or mainstreaming them without support-"is still quite about girls' self-esteem Her work in performance studies exam- prevalent. " ines"what people do with bodies. "Athletics, she says, sig. While the effects of Title IX were taking hold, a"third wave" nificantly changes a girls relationship with her body. To help her of American feminism--advocating "difference"and"girl students understand the laws impact, she tells them that in the ness"was rising. Feminist performance artists like the Guer 197os,"a sports bra was a specialized piece of sports equipment, rilla Girls and the V-Girls reclaimed the word "girl"in the 1g8os not something you could buy at any department store-which and in the early 1ggos, the punk band Bikini Kill famously put speaks to a huge change in expectations for women and athlet- the grrr into "grrrl" and helped catalyze a movement of Riot ics. "People don't recognize Title IX's impact, she adds, "not just Grrrls. Young third-wavers resisted sexism through their music, Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746percent for dropouts, and interracial marriage still a rarity, edu￾cated and employed black women often decide to raise their chil￾dren out of wedlock. Recent reports suggest that some profes￾sional black women are starting to enter interracial relationships, however, so the alpha generation may change these marriage pat￾terns. Meanwhile, Katz and Goldin believe the “marriage gap” re￾inforces an increasingly polarized and unequal socioeconomic en￾vironment for children. “The mothering piece is really the fault line when it comes to class and race,” says ethnographer Wendy Luttrell, author of Schoolsmart and Motherwise: Working-Class Women’s Identity and Schooling (1997). For middle- and upper-class girls and women struggling to balance rewarding work and family, “the tradeo≠ is about being the perfect mom and doing the perfect job—about being able to do everything,” she says. But for poor and working-class, increasingly single, mothers, “It’s not about tradeo≠s, it’s about, ‘How am I going to support my kids and keep them safe?’” For these women, the challenge is meeting the double-duty demands of mothering and low-wage work, predominantly in service-sec￾tor jobs and often for professional women, who employ and rely upon low-income women (disproportionately women of color and recent immigrants) to do all kinds of family-care work, says Luttrell. The current rhetoric about work-family conflicts em￾phasizes personal choices regarding working and/or mothering, “but this overlooks the larger mother-care-work crisis caused by unequal opportunity, declining social services, and unjust poli￾cies that pit employment demands on wage-poor mothers against the care needs of their children.” Not all young women will choose to be mothers (26 percent of white women born in 1960 with a college degree are childless, for example), but the majority will. With 72 percent of American mothers working outside the home, the work/family challenge is widespread. “From a women’s rights point of view, that’s still the biggest hurdle to overcome,” notes Kindlon. Work/family issues play a significant role in the wage gap. Some companies avoid investing in training women who may take time o≠ for maternity and childrearing, according to Bur￾bank professor of political economy Torben Iversen. Once career T oday’s american girls and young women may be the daughters of feminism, but their world isn’t always the one envisioned by their foremothers. “Little girls dress in pink and they’re princesses, but at the same time they’re going to grow up to wear five-inch heels and kick ass!” says Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin, an old-school feminist who wants more equality, not di≠erence, between the sexes. The rise of “girl power” and the celebration of “di≠er￾ence”—propelled by forces ranging from Title IX to feminist punk-rock bands—have changed American culture, although not all girls have benefited equally. The struggle for women’s rights in the United States is often described in terms of “waves.” First-wave feminism culminated with women’s su≠rage in 1920, while the resurgent second-wave feminism of the 1960s and ’70s focused on reproductive freedom, sexual harassment, equal pay, and access to education and jobs. The second-wave mother of the girls’ movement was Carol Gilli￾gan, formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard Graduate School of Education, whose book on women’s psycho￾logical development, In a Di≠erent Voice (1982), inspired countless studies on girls and sweeping educational changes. Another sec￾ond-wave development was Title IX. “My students have been deeply touched by Title IX” and its ex￾pectation that girls would participate in sports equally to boys, says assistant professor of studies of women, gender, and sexual￾ity and of history and literature Robin Bernstein, when asked about girls’ self-esteem. Her work in performance studies exam￾ines “what people do with bodies.” Athletics, she says, sig￾nificantly changes a girl’s relationship with her body. To help her students understand the law’s impact, she tells them that in the 1970s, “a sports bra was a specialized piece of sports equipment, not something you could buy at any department store—which speaks to a huge change in expectations for women and athlet￾ics.” People don’t recognize Title IX’s impact, she adds, “not just on female athletes who made varsity or went on to the Olympics, but on the masses of girls who grew up with the expectation, ‘Sure, I’ll play soccer. Why not?’” Female sports participation has skyrocketed since Richard Nixon signed Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments to the 1964 Civil Rights Act into law—by 450 percent in college and an astounding 900 percent in high school (to 2.9 million girls) in 2005-2006. (Not everyone has benefited as intended. For inner￾city girls, for example, sports fields are often nonexistent and schools can’t a≠ord the expense of equipment, lessons, and travel.) Furthermore, Title IX is not just about sports. It not only bans bias (in recruitment, financial aid, benefits, and scholarships) against either sex in any educational setting receiving federal aid, it also outlaws sexual harassment and protects equal access to math and science, higher education, career training, technology, and employment. Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associate professor in human development and education and the author of Pregnant Bodies, Fertile Minds: Gender, Race, and the Schooling of Pregnant Teens (2003), notes that “Title IX was also initiated so that pregnant girls could stay in school.” (Public schools used to expel preg￾nant students and bar visibly pregnant teachers from class￾rooms. “Title IX got rid of the de jure discrimination that pregnant girls cannot be in school,” Luttrell says, “but de facto discrimina￾tion”—either isolating the girls from resources and regular classes, or mainstreaming them without support—“is still quite prevalent.”) While the e≠ects of Title IX were taking hold, a “third wave” of American feminism—advocating “di≠erence” and “girl￾ness”—was rising. Feminist performance artists like the Guer￾rilla Girls and the V-Girls reclaimed the word “girl” in the 1980s, and in the early 1990s, the punk band Bikini Kill famously put the grrr into “grrrl” and helped catalyze a movement of Riot Grrrls. Young third-wavers resisted sexism through their music, From Title IX to Riot Grrrls