复旦大学：《文化人类学 Cultural Anthropology》阅读资料_Girl Power

G Power What has changed for women-and what hasn't by HARBOUR FRASER HODDER lustration by ANNIE BISSETT HEN DAN KINDLON watches since the early 198os. He began to think of them as "alpha girls the tigers lay softball, he sees These girls-Kindlon uses the term because his research fo- the legacy of feminism for girls. cuses on female development up to age 21, the period covered by My daughters concentrating on pediatric medicine--were not the self-loathing, melancholic itching the ball, and this other girl teens at risk portrayed in such former bestsellers as Schoolgirls: just slams into her, slides under, "he Young Women, Self-Esteem and the Confidence Gap(Peggy Orenstein) recalls. " Julia got hurt a little bit, she Failing at Faimess: How America's Schools Cheat Girls(Myra and David got scraped up, but it was an experi- Sadker), and Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Sches of Adolescent Girls(Mary ence that used to be exclusively the province of men and boys- Pipher). Girls today "take it for granted that it is their due to get up and get back in the game, brush your tears off, and ignore the over fertility control, equal educational and athletic access, ore ip to get knocked down, and then you've got to pick yourself back equal rights, Kindlon They never had to fight those battl blood. She was kind of proud of herself afterwards. It was a gal job discrimination. "As a result, "girls are starting to make the character-building experience that very few girls growing up in psychological shift, the inner transformation, that Simone de an earlier generation had a chance to have Now almost all of Beauvoir predicted "in 1949 when she wrote, in The Second Sex, Harvard School of Public Health. The more he coached his Recognizing t e] will arrive at complete economic and them have that chance” "sooner or later [wome Kindlon is a clinical psychologist and adjunct lecturer at the social equality, which will bring about an inner metamorphosis. ew psychology was necessary to describe youngest daughters team, the more he understood he was ob- his daughters' generation, Kindlon studied more than goo girls wi ng a new generation of girls and young women. "People and boys across the United States and Canada and wrote about that girls aren't co e and don't enjoy winning his findings in Alpha Girls: Understanding the New American Girl and have never gone to a game and watched he says with a laugh. How She Is Changing the World(2006). This new "girl power"is char "My own daughters are so different from the girls I grew up acterized by what Kindlon calls an"emancipated confidence with, in terms of the things they think they can do. "Linking that is raising self-esteem, reducing depression, and altering gen those observations with accumulating data that show girls out- der roles among girls and young women. performing boys in grades, honors, and high-school graduation "Alpha girls"did not appear overnight, however. A century of rates-and with the historic reversal in U.S. college enroll- social and economic change first tipped and then leveled the ments(58 percent today are women, the 1970 percentage for playing field, creating the circumstances for unprecedented men)-convinced Kindlon that todays American girls are pro- gains for women in education and the labor force. These gains foundly different from their mothers. "They were born into appear across socioeconomic strata, but they are less widespread a different world, he says of girls and young women born among low-income and minority girls. To rectify the disparities, 34 JANUARY- FEBRUARY 2008 Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

34 January - February 2008 hen dan kindlon watches the Tigers play softball, he sees the legacy of feminism for girls. “My daughter’s concentrating on catching the ball, and this other girl just slams into her, slides under,” he recalls. “Julia got hurt a little bit, she got scraped up, but it was an experi￾ence that used to be exclusively the province of men and boys— to get knocked down, and then you’ve got to pick yourself back up and get back in the game, brush your tears o≠, and ignore the blood. She was kind of proud of herself afterwards. It was a character-building experience that very few girls growing up in an earlier generation had a chance to have. Now almost all of them have that chance.” Kindlon is a clinical psychologist and adjunct lecturer at the Harvard School of Public Health. The more he coached his youngest daughter’s team, the more he understood he was ob￾serving a new generation of girls and young women. “People who say that girls aren’t competitive and don’t enjoy winning have never gone to a game and watched!” he says with a laugh. “My own daughters are so di≠erent from the girls I grew up with, in terms of the things they think they can do.” Linking those observations with accumulating data that show girls out￾performing boys in grades, honors, and high-school graduation rates—and with the historic reversal in U.S. college enroll￾ments (58 percent today are women, the 1970 percentage for men)—convinced Kindlon that today’s American girls are pro￾foundly di≠erent from their mothers. “They were born into a di≠erent world,” he says of girls and young women born since the early 1980s. He began to think of them as “alpha girls.” These girls—Kindlon uses the term because his research fo￾cuses on female development up to age 21, the period covered by pediatric medicine—were not the self-loathing, melancholic teens at risk portrayed in such former bestsellers as Schoolgirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem and the Confidence Gap (Peggy Orenstein), Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls (Myra and David Sadker), and Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls (Mary Pipher). Girls today “take it for granted that it is their due to get equal rights,” Kindlon says. “They never had to fight those battles over fertility control, equal educational and athletic access, or ille￾gal job discrimination.” As a result, “girls are starting to make the psychological shift, the inner transformation, that Simone de Beauvoir predicted” in 1949 when she wrote, in The Second Sex, “sooner or later [women] will arrive at complete economic and social equality, which will bring about an inner metamorphosis.” Recognizing that a new psychology was necessary to describe his daughters’ generation, Kindlon studied more than 900 girls and boys across the United States and Canada and wrote about his findings in Alpha Girls: Understanding the New American Girl and How She Is Changing the World (2006). This new “girl power” is char￾acterized by what Kindlon calls an “emancipated confidence” that is raising self-esteem, reducing depression, and altering gen￾der roles among girls and young women. “Alpha girls” did not appear overnight, however. A century of social and economic change first tipped and then leveled the playing field, creating the circumstances for unprecedented gains for women in education and the labor force. These gains appear across socioeconomic strata, but they are less widespread among low-income and minority girls. To rectify the disparities, Girl Power W What has changed for women—and what hasn’t by HARBOUR FRASER HODDER Illustrations by ANNIE BISSETT

Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-57462

ome"alphas"are creating innovative programs as part of a "girls career and family aspirations) and in 2005 surveyed poo girls and movement"to make such progress available to all young women. 228 boys in the sixth through twelfth grades in a range of urban Of course, once alpha girls enter the workforce and begin fami- suburban, and rural U.S. and Canadian schools. He then inter ers did; how they will cope with these challenges is uncertain, tween 1984 and 1988. These were alpha girls who had attained a but they are already changing wage and marriage patterns in un- 3. 8 or better grade-point average and at least one leadership posi expected ways tion,pursued 10 or more hours of extracurriculars weekly, and scored high on measures of"achievement motivation." Alpha Psych 101 Kindlon found signs of a new "alph "THE PSYCHOLOGICAL DEMONS that used to affect girls and girls. There were no sex differences in depressive symptoms, no women in this country just don't affect today's girls in the same drop in self-esteem across the six grades, and no lack of way, "Kindlon asserts In the 1g8os and early gos, Carol Gilligan confidence By tenth grade, in fact, the girls he surveyed had higher (formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard Gradu- self-esteem than boys, and alphas had significantly higher self-es- ate School of Education and now a professor at New York Uni- teem than non-alphas. Lower socioeconomic status tended to ersity) and other feminist psychologists wrote that girls in their lower self-esteem scores for both sexes, irrespective of race or teens compromise their authenticity to fit gender roles, thereby ethnicity, but Kindlon interviewed many "inner-city alphas" "losing their voice. "In 1992, influential American Association of the phenomenon is not confined to"elites "(Consistent with p University Women(AAUW)research on late-198os data on girls vious research, he did find higher rates of anxiety born in the 1g7os found that girls' self-esteem plunged in middle than boys-perhaps because girls"want to get things done,"he school, compared to boys, and that classroom sexism(such as speculates, although he notes that biological factors could be in- teachers'calling on boys more than girls, or more competitive volved In either case, he cautions against overemphasizing the than cooperative learning)was a cause. The AAUW report rec- anxiety scores, because boys may underreport their own anxiety. ognized positive trends, such as young women's ascent in college Loss of voice"may be a thing of the past, as Kindlon suggest enrollment, while recommending correctives for the continu- but gender pressures persist, says Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associ- ing shortfalls ate professor in human development and education: "We cant talk a girls are created in large numbers when the society that about how girls are doing today without talking about boys and they are born into has sufficient equal opportunity, Kindlon says: girls in relation to each other. " As a feminist ethnographer who ana- "It wasn't until the early to mid '8os-when schools really lyzes gender, race, and class in educational settings, she believes started to get serious about Title IX, when women first began to kids today, in fact, are still "incredibly constrained by gender. She outnumber men in college, when women began moving into recently observed such forces in action at the close of her youngest leadership roles, such as Congress, in significant numbers-that daughter's summer college-prep program. The karaoke competi- societal conditions had changed enough to permit the alpha girl tion between sex-segregated groups was "a Saturday Night Live mir explosion. He set out to discover how Beauvoir's"inner meta- icry of what gender roles in contemporary society look like,"she re- morphosis" has changed girls' psychology in the years since the ports. The girls performed"sexy-but-cute Britney Spears acts, AAUW report while the boys presented aggressive, sexualized, hip-hop dance A a girls don t identify with a passive-feminine sex role, yet maintain"female"skills like ocial networking. They also know how to do things that only men and boys traditionally did, such as"channel their aggression in a competitive situation--not to get too mad, but to get mad enough so you can play harder-and to compete and to enjoy winning He knew that past and recent research in a variety of fields numbers. "Each group played off the extreme of the other, "she had already revealed gender differences in mental illness: girls notes, wishing the hypermasculine and hyperfeminine perfor and women have twice mens risk for depression and mances had been far less stereotypical, with"both boys and girls orders, while boys and men are twice as likely to suffer sub- crossing what we consider to be "male'and'female'roles. stance-use disorders and schizophrenia. Some theories attribute The alpha generation may yet fulfill that wish. "Girls are now his depression/anxiety gender gap, which appears in adoles- able to play more roles, "says Kindlon. Alpha girls don't identify cence, to differences in the biology of sex hormones; other expla- with a passive-feminine sex role, yet maintain"female"skills like nations focus on "gender socialization. "Investigators have lo- social networking. They also know how to do things that only cated numerous gender-related risk factors for depression, men and boys traditionally did, such as"channel their aggression including passive-feminine sex-role identification, helpless cop- in a competitive situation--not to get too mad, but to get mad ing styles, and low self-esteem. Body dissatisfaction is also key: enough so you can play harder-and to compete and to enjoy in adolescence, boys gain muscle while girls gain fat--just as winning."Fathers play a big part in this psychology, Kindlon body-image pressures intensify adds. He has found that alphas' dads are more involved in their To assess the psychological and social health of a new genera- daughters' lives than non-alphas'dads. They can pass along tion of girls, Kindlon designed the Adolescent Life Survey to "male ways of being, "such as rougher play and greater risk-tak measure 1g dimensions of teen experience(from mental health to and"male ways of thinki 36 JANUARY- FEBRUARY 2008 Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

36 January - February 2008 some “alphas” are creating innovative programs as part of a “girls’ movement” to make such progress available to all young women. Of course, once alpha girls enter the workforce and begin fami￾lies, they will no doubt encounter the same tradeo≠s their moth￾ers did; how they will cope with these challenges is uncertain, but they are already changing wage and marriage patterns in un￾expected ways. Alpha Psych 101 “The psychological demons that used to a≠ect girls and women in this country just don’t a≠ect today’s girls in the same way,” Kindlon asserts. In the 1980s and early ’90s, Carol Gilligan (formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard Gradu￾ate School of Education and now a professor at New York Uni￾versity) and other feminist psychologists wrote that girls in their teens compromise their authenticity to fit gender roles, thereby “losing their voice.” In 1992, influential American Association of University Women (AAUW) research on late-1980s data on girls born in the 1970s found that girls’ self-esteem plunged in middle school, compared to boys’, and that classroom sexism (such as teachers’ calling on boys more than girls, or more competitive than cooperative learning) was a cause. The AAUW report rec￾ognized positive trends, such as young women’s ascent in college enrollment, while recommending correctives for the continu￾ing shortfalls. Alpha girls are created in large numbers when the society that they are born into has su∞cient equal opportunity, Kindlon says: “It wasn’t until the early to mid ’80s—when schools really started to get serious about Title IX, when women first began to outnumber men in college, when women began moving into leadership roles, such as Congress, in significant numbers—that societal conditions had changed enough to permit the alpha girl explosion.” He set out to discover how Beauvoir’s “inner meta￾morphosis” has changed girls’ psychology in the years since the AAUW report. He knew that past and recent research in a variety of fields had already revealed gender di≠erences in mental illness: girls and women have twice men’s risk for depression and anxiety dis￾orders, while boys and men are twice as likely to su≠er sub￾stance-use disorders and schizophrenia. Some theories attribute this depression/anxiety gender gap, which appears in adoles￾cence, to di≠erences in the biology of sex hormones; other expla￾nations focus on “gender socialization.” Investigators have lo￾cated numerous gender-related risk factors for depression, including passive-feminine sex-role identification, helpless cop￾ing styles, and low self-esteem. Body dissatisfaction is also key: in adolescence, boys gain muscle while girls gain fat—just as body-image pressures intensify. To assess the psychological and social health of a new genera￾tion of girls, Kindlon designed the Adolescent Life Survey to measure 19 dimensions of teen experience (from mental health to career and family aspirations) and in 2005 surveyed 700 girls and 228 boys in the sixth through twelfth grades in a range of urban, suburban, and rural U.S. and Canadian schools. He then inter￾viewed the top 113 high-school girls, born for the most part be￾tween 1984 and 1988. These were alpha girls who had attained a 3.8 or better grade-point average and at least one leadership posi￾tion, pursued 10 or more hours of extracurriculars weekly, and scored high on measures of “achievement motivation.” Kindlon found signs of a new “alpha psychology” among all the girls. There were no sex di≠erences in depressive symptoms, no drop in self-esteem across the six grades, and no lack of confidence. By tenth grade, in fact, the girls he surveyed had higher self-esteem than boys, and alphas had significantly higher self-es￾teem than non-alphas. Lower socioeconomic status tended to lower self-esteem scores for both sexes, irrespective of race or ethnicity, but Kindlon interviewed many “inner-city alphas”— the phenomenon is not confined to “elites.” (Consistent with pre￾vious research, he did find higher rates of anxiety among girls than boys—perhaps because girls “want to get things done,” he speculates, although he notes that biological factors could be in￾volved. In either case, he cautions against overemphasizing the anxiety scores, because boys may underreport their own anxiety.) “Loss of voice” may be a thing of the past, as Kindlon suggests, but gender pressures persist, says Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associ￾ate professor in human development and education: “We can’t talk about how girls are doing today without talking about boys and girls in relation to each other.” As a feminist ethnographer who ana￾lyzes gender, race, and class in educational settings, she believes kids today, in fact, are still “incredibly constrained” by gender. She recently observed such forces in action at the close of her youngest daughter’s summer college-prep program. The karaoke competi￾tion between sex-segregated groups was “a Saturday Night Live mim￾icry of what gender roles in contemporary society look like,” she re￾ports. The girls performed “sexy-but-cute Britney Spears acts,” while the boys presented aggressive, sexualized, hip-hop dance numbers. “Each group played o≠ the extreme of the other,” she notes, wishing the hypermasculine and hyperfeminine perfor￾mances had been far less stereotypical, with “both boys and girls crossing what we consider to be ‘male’ and ‘female’ roles.” The alpha generation may yet fulfill that wish. “Girls are now able to play more roles,” says Kindlon. Alpha girls don’t identify with a passive-feminine sex role, yet maintain “female” skills like social networking. They also know how to do things that only men and boys traditionally did, such as “channel their aggression in a competitive situation—not to get too mad, but to get mad enough so you can play harder—and to compete and to enjoy winning.” Fathers play a big part in this psychology, Kindlon adds. He has found that alphas’ dads are more involved in their daughters’ lives than non-alphas’ dads. They can pass along “male ways of being,” such as rougher play and greater risk-tak￾ing, and “male ways of thinking.” lpha girls don’t identify with a passive-feminine sex role, yet maintain “female” skills like social networking. They also know how to do things that only men and boys traditionally did, such as “channel their aggression in a competitive situation—not to get too mad, Abut to get mad enough so you can play harder—and to compete and to enjoy winning

This"hybrid"self, an"androgynous"personality incorporating needed the college advantage, and school districts'new"mar- spects of both parents, is a cornerstone of alpha psychology, he riage bars"against married female teachers made teaching de believes. The more androgynous girls in his study had higher grees less valuable to women. less promiscuous sex and substance abuse. Because they can get this huge spike of guys coming back from Europe and A choose from what feminist psychologists call" separate"tradi- Goldin for every woman. The GI Bill enabled men from many tionally masculine)or"connected"(traditionally feminine) styles campus of being in the world, they have a psychological advantage. "Girls age groups to attend college at the same time, bolstering male are better adapted, he says. "Theyre more flexible and have enrollment until after the Korean War. More women went as more skill. Boys havent changed as much-or haven,'t been in- well, because college benefits often included "your M.R.S., duced as much to play a variety of roles notes goldin. Then came vietnam-and draft deferment. Be What girls are saying, adds Kindlon, is, "I have flexibility that cause more draftable men went to and stayed in college, male no other woman has ever had in history, or certainly not in any college graduation rates peaked for men born in the late 194os numbers, and I can play any role-Bring it on. "As one"hybrid" Women also have"a Vietnam effect, " Goldin says: "If boys go alpha(now at Harvard) told him, "I can wear high heels to my girls go. "Women were catching up, but the gender gap in B.A. linear algebra class. I can be sexy or I can be feminine, or I can completion in 1g70 still favored men, 57 percent to 43 percent also blow the boys away in this really tough class. I can do any. By 1972, girls in the top socioeconomic quartile achieved col thing. I don't see it as inconsistent to be wearing high heels. I lege parity despite the war. In two decades, by 1992, girls at every don't feel like I've got to dress down or dress like a man to do this socioeconomic level had a substantial lead. "Families are not dis class I can still be a woman and do all these other things criminating in resources for college in favor of boys as they may have done 75 years ago, "says Katz. And in the lower half of eco- The Rise of the Alpha Girl nomic distribution, the female-to-male ratio today is consider LoNG-EMERGING CHANGES in girls'access to higher education ably higher than in the upper half, a reversal of traditional pat and career options have prepared the ground for girls"emanci- terns. (The female advantage is larger among African Americans pated confidence. "In fact, aspects of alpha girlhood aren't new. and Hispanics than among whites, but the decline in the male Girls have been ahead of boys in pre-college education for well to-female ratio of undergraduates during the past 35 years is not over 100 years, "says Allison professor of economics Lawrence due primarily to changes in the ethnic mix of the college-aged Katz: in high-school graduation rates and in constituting two- pop pulation, write Goldin and Katz: "The bottom line is that the thirds of honors students. "What was striking in the past [was] new gender gap favoring females is found throughout the socio- that even though girls dominated boys through high school, boys economic distribution, "and it is similar for whites, all ethnic and were given greater opportunities to go on to college racial subgroups, and the entire U.S. population.) But as the women's movement dismantled labor-market barri Girls and young women today also invest in"their own human rs and an accelerating service economy expanded job opportu- capital" through what they choose to study in high school and nities in the 1970s, girls and young women expected and found college, due to dramatic changes in the labor market. Reflecting greater economic benefits from going to college. Add the Pill and on college majors, Goldin says, " The huge shift is out of educa- later marriage and first birth; subtract male incentives like the tion into business. "Until the 197os, most female undergradua GI Bill and disproportionate family support; multiply by behav- concentrated in literature, languages, and education, because ioral differences between girls and boys-and you have the for- most of the job opportunities were in teaching. In 1970, for exam- mula for exponential change, argue Lee professor of economics ple, 56 percent of working 30-to 34-year-old college-educated Claudia Goldin and Katz in a recent journal article, "The Home- women were teachers, compared to only 18 percent in 2000.By oming of American College Women: The Reversal of the Col- 2005, 50 percent of business majors were women. And"psychol lege Gender Gap"(with Ilyana Kuziemko, Ph D 'o7) ogy is the English of yesterday, "adds Goldin: 78 percent of psy- "It's never clear why the American press wakes up suddenly chology concentrators today are women. As their opportunities and says, 'Oh! Where are the men on campus?" The crossover changed, girls took more high-school science and math, achiev point was way back in 1g80--25 years ago! " says Goldin. Head- ing virtual parity by 1992 in numbers of courses(and narrowing lines imply that male college attendance has dropped, yet there's the math-score gap), while rem ahead in foreign languages been"enormous growth in B.A. completion rates"for both sexes, Meanwhile, boys' progress relative to girls'was less dramatic, she notes. The female rate of increase has been much higher, and even stagnating at lower socioeconomic levels In Goldin and however, so the ratios of the 1g6os and zos have fliy to s8 Katz's"cost-benefit analysis"of college returns, girls and young percent female nationwide today. What drove this dramatic women have lower"nonpecuniary costs" for college-prep and at catch-up and reversal? "The playing field and the labor market tendance than boys and young men, and they earn higher eco- are much more even,"says Katz. "Thats really what's changed. nomic benefits from going to college(women without college earn Surprisingly, however, the rise of women in higher education less than men without college). Moreover, note Goldin and Katz, began with college parity, early in the twentieth century. From boys have more learning disabilities, suffer from attention deficit 1g00 to the Crash of 1929, women went to college in numbers hyperactivity disorder at triple the rate of girls, engage in more ual to men. A fraction went to the"Seven Sisters, "but the ma- criminal activity, and spend less time on schoolwork than girls jority enrolled in public institutions, such as teachers'colleges School has also become harder and more competitive since and the large state institutions that accepted women. Then the 1983. when the National Commission on Excellence in Education Great Depression drove a wedge into parity. Unemployed men published A Nation at Risk, notes Dan Kindlon. The girls born at HARⅤ ARD MAGAS2NE37 Reprinted from Ha arvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

Harvard Magazine 37 This “hybrid” self, an “androgynous” personality incorporating aspects of both parents, is a cornerstone of alpha psychology, he believes. The more androgynous girls in his study had higher self-esteem, were less anxious or self-conscious, and engaged in less promiscuous sex and substance abuse. Because they can choose from what feminist psychologists call “separate” (tradi￾tionally masculine) or “connected” (traditionally feminine) styles of being in the world, they have a psychological advantage. “Girls are better adapted,” he says. “They’re more flexible and have more skill. Boys haven’t changed as much—or haven’t been in￾duced as much to play a variety of roles.” What girls are saying, adds Kindlon, is, “I have flexibility that no other woman has ever had in history, or certainly not in any numbers, and I can play any role—‘Bring it on.’” As one “hybrid” alpha (now at Harvard) told him, “I can wear high heels to my linear algebra class. I can be sexy or I can be feminine, or I can also blow the boys away in this really tough class. I can do any￾thing. I don’t see it as inconsistent to be wearing high heels. I don’t feel like I’ve got to dress down or dress like a man to do this class. I can still be a woman and do all these other things.” The Rise of the Alpha Girl Long-emerging changes in girls’ access to higher education and career options have prepared the ground for girls’ “emanci￾pated confidence.” In fact, aspects of alpha girlhood aren’t new. “Girls have been ahead of boys in pre-college education for well over 100 years,” says Allison professor of economics Lawrence Katz: in high-school graduation rates and in constituting two￾thirds of honors students. “What was striking in the past [was] that even though girls dominated boys through high school, boys were given greater opportunities to go on to college.” But as the women’s movement dismantled labor-market barri￾ers and an accelerating service economy expanded job opportu￾nities in the 1970s, girls and young women expected and found greater economic benefits from going to college. Add the Pill and later marriage and first birth; subtract male incentives like the GI Bill and disproportionate family support; multiply by behav￾ioral di≠erences between girls and boys—and you have the for￾mula for exponential change, argue Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin and Katz in a recent journal article, “The Home￾coming of American College Women: The Reversal of the Col￾lege Gender Gap” (with Ilyana Kuziemko, Ph.D. ’07). “It’s never clear why the American press wakes up suddenly and says, ‘Oh! Where are the men on campus?’ The crossover point was way back in 1980—25 years ago!” says Goldin. Head￾lines imply that male college attendance has dropped, yet there’s been “enormous growth in B.A. completion rates” for both sexes, she notes. The female rate of increase has been much higher, however, so the ratios of the 1960s and ’70s have flipped—to 58 percent female nationwide today. What drove this dramatic catch-up and reversal? “The playing field and the labor market are much more even,” says Katz. “That’s really what’s changed.” Surprisingly, however, the rise of women in higher education began with college parity, early in the twentieth century. From 1900 to the Crash of 1929, women went to college in numbers equal to men. A fraction went to the “Seven Sisters,” but the ma￾jority enrolled in public institutions, such as teachers’ colleges and the large state institutions that accepted women. Then the Great Depression drove a wedge into parity. Unemployed men needed the college advantage, and school districts’ new “mar￾riage bars” against married female teachers made teaching de￾grees less valuable to women. Male-to-female ratios peaked in 1947, after World War II. “You get this huge spike of guys coming back from Europe and Asia,” Goldin says, when there were “two and a half men” on college campuses for every woman. The GI Bill enabled men from many age groups to attend college at the same time, bolstering male enrollment until after the Korean War. More women went as well, because college benefits often included “your M.R.S.,” notes Goldin. Then came Vietnam—and draft deferment. Be￾cause more draftable men went to and stayed in college, male college graduation rates peaked for men born in the late 1940s. Women also have “a Vietnam e≠ect,” Goldin says: “If boys go, girls go.” Women were catching up, but the gender gap in B.A. completion in 1970 still favored men, 57 percent to 43 percent. By 1972, girls in the top socioeconomic quartile achieved col￾lege parity despite the war. In two decades, by 1992, girls at every socioeconomic level had a substantial lead. “Families are not dis￾criminating in resources for college in favor of boys as they may have done 75 years ago,” says Katz. And in the lower half of eco￾nomic distribution, the female-to-male ratio today is consider￾ably higher than in the upper half, a reversal of traditional pat￾terns. (The female advantage is larger among African Americans and Hispanics than among whites, but the decline in the male￾to-female ratio of undergraduates during the past 35 years is not due primarily to changes in the ethnic mix of the college-aged population, write Goldin and Katz: “The bottom line is that the new gender gap favoring females is found throughout the socio￾economic distribution,” and it is similar for whites, all ethnic and racial subgroups, and the entire U.S. population.) Girls and young women today also invest in “their own human capital” through what they choose to study in high school and college, due to dramatic changes in the labor market. Reflecting on college majors, Goldin says, “The huge shift is out of educa￾tion into business.” Until the 1970s, most female undergraduates concentrated in literature, languages, and education, because most of the job opportunities were in teaching. In 1970, for exam￾ple, 56 percent of working 30- to 34-year-old college-educated women were teachers, compared to only 18 percent in 2000. By 2005, 50 percent of business majors were women. And “psychol￾ogy is the English of yesterday,” adds Goldin: 78 percent of psy￾chology concentrators today are women. As their opportunities changed, girls took more high-school science and math, achiev￾ing virtual parity by 1992 in numbers of courses (and narrowing the math-score gap), while remaining ahead in foreign languages. Meanwhile, boys’ progress relative to girls’ was less dramatic, and even stagnating at lower socioeconomic levels. In Goldin and Katz’s “cost-benefit analysis” of college returns, girls and young women have lower “nonpecuniary costs” for college-prep and at￾tendance than boys and young men, and they earn higher eco￾nomic benefits from going to college (women without college earn less than men without college). Moreover, note Goldin and Katz, boys have more learning disabilities, su≠er from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at triple the rate of girls, engage in more criminal activity, and spend less time on schoolwork than girls. School has also become harder and more competitive since 1983, when the National Commission on Excellence in Education published A Nation at Risk, notes Dan Kindlon. The girls born at

that time and since"were starting to make the psychological Strong Women, Strong Girls hift predicted by Beauvoir, so they rose to the challenge, "he "A LOT OF THE HOPES of the feminist movement and the girls' ys. "Girls are doing the work and boys aren't--boys are playing programming movement are being realized, but there's a tremen- Grand Theft Auto "Kindlon once asked his youngest daughter, dous amount of work still to be done, particularly for girls with "Is it just that girls are smarter than boys?" And at age 11 she said, out educational or economic advantages, "says Lindsay Hyde 04, No, theyre not smarter, but they have more stamina, which I founder and executive director of Strong Women, Strong Girls think really does characterize it (SWSG), a nonprofit organization that fosters high aspirations Yet college-bound girls, despite their hard work, face stiffer and success skills among low-income minority girls by involving admissions competition than boys. A U.S. News analysis of a them with strong female role models. Hydes inspiration was her decade of data from 1, 400 colleges discovered that schools main- own mother, a Miami single mom who cut the tiled the tained gender balance by admitting girls at"drastically different bathroom floor, redid the electrical system, and"demonstrated rates"-on average 13 percentage points lower-than boys. for me that women could really do anything "When a number of state universities started becoming incredi- Keen to share her own experience with young girls, Hyde de bly female [7o percent or more], "explains Katz, "private univer- signed and taught a curriculum based on historic and contempo- sities started doing things that look like affirmative action for rary women at the local elementary school during her last semes- ys. Admissions officers basically said, "We were getting wor- ter of high school. When she couldn't find a girl-centered service ried about the gender mix, so we shaded things They're bring- opportunity at Harvard that fall, she used her curriculum to ing in on-the-margin guys who are less qualified than women in start a new afterschool program through Phillips Brooks House, order to maintain some gender balance. eginning with six undergraduate women and 3o girls from the Fertility control, meanwhile, has helped women achieve their third, fourth, and fifth grades at Roxbury and Mission Hill ele ambitions well beyond college. As Goldin and Katz argue in an- mentary schools. Seven years later, SWSG serves 400 mostly other journal article, "The Power of the Pill: Oral Contraceptives African-American and Latina girls at 32 schools and community and Women,s Career and Marriage Decisions, "the birth-control centers in Boston and Pittsburgh, with 120 mentors from seven oill, approved in 196o but made available to college-age colleges and universities. (For her work, Hyde recently received single women only in the late 1g6os and early 7os, he Samuel S Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an In- allowed young women to delay both marriage and dividual 35 or Under, one of the five Jefferson Awards con childbearing while they pursued graduate and ferred annually by the American Institute for Public Service professional school. Women now earn the major- To offset the effects of poverty, gender stereotyping, and ity of M.D., D.D. S, and J D. professional degrees, low expectations that can undermine girls'academic and the majority of all postgraduate degrees confidence and direct them to narrow education and career For the first time in history, females have complete options, SwSG combines the study of diverse female role fertility control, which means they aren't getting preg models with team-mentoring, field trips, and community nant, dropping out, having babies, "notes neuropsychiatrist service. Two or three undergraduate mentors lead 1o to 12 Louann Brizendine. a former Harvard Medical School resi- girls in weekly lessons built around a particular skill, such dent and faculty member who is the author of The Female Brain as critical thinking. Sessions begin by and founder and director of the women's Mood and Hor ading the biography of a woman ex- none Clinic at the University of California, San Francisco amplifying that skill, such as Sally She believes that the "alpha" phenomenon also involves"a Ride. the first American female as- aradigm shift in the way parents think about their girls' op tronaut, in order to"paint a pic tions in the world, "in part because unwanted pregnancy is ture of the steps she needed to out of the picture. "Theres a whole generation of girls take to go from being 1o years old whose creativity and intellect are being supported by their fami lies. Their mothers and fathers are cheering them on, coaching them, and setting the bar high, so that their ambition can soar and take them high. " With a level playing field, then, in family resources, higher ed ucation, economic op- portunity, and fertil- ity control, a critical mass of young women have achieved-and are achieving-the his toric potential of their sex 38 JANUARY- FEBRUARY 2008 Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

that time and since “were starting to make the psychological shift predicted by Beauvoir, so they rose to the challenge,” he says. “Girls are doing the work and boys aren’t—boys are playing Grand Theft Auto.” Kindlon once asked his youngest daughter, “‘Is it just that girls are smarter than boys?’ And at age 11 she said, ‘No, they’re not smarter, but they have more stamina,’ which I think really does characterize it.” Yet college-bound girls, despite their hard work, face sti≠er admissions competition than boys. A U.S. News analysis of a decade of data from 1, 400 colleges discovered that schools main￾tained gender balance by admitting girls at “drastically di≠erent rates”—on average 13 percentage points lower—than boys. “When a number of state universities started becoming incredi￾bly female [70 percent or more],” explains Katz, “private univer￾sities started doing things that look like a∞rmative action for boys. Admissions o∞cers basically said, ‘We were getting wor￾ried about the gender mix, so we shaded things.’ They’re bring￾ing in on-the-margin guys who are less qualified than women in order to maintain some gender balance.” Fertility control, meanwhile, has helped women achieve their ambitions well beyond college. As Goldin and Katz argue in an￾other journal article, “The Power of the Pill: Oral Contraceptives and Women’s Career and Marriage Decisions,” the birth-control pill, approved in 1960 but made available to college-age single women only in the late 1960s and early ’70s, allowed young women to delay both marriage and childbearing while they pursued graduate and professional school. Women now earn the major￾ity of M.D., D.D.S., and J.D. professional degrees, and the majority of all postgraduate degrees. “For the first time in history, females have complete fertility control, which means they aren’t getting preg￾nant, dropping out, having babies,” notes neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine, a former Harvard Medical School resi￾dent and faculty member who is the author of The Female Brain and founder and director of the Women’s Mood and Hor￾mone Clinic at the University of California, San Francisco. She believes that the “alpha” phenomenon also involves “a paradigm shift in the way parents think about their girls’ op￾tions in the world,” in part because unwanted pregnancy is out of the picture. “There’s a whole generation of girls whose creativity and intellect are being supported by their fami￾lies. Their mothers and fathers are cheering them on, coaching them, and setting the bar high, so that their ambition can soar and take them high.” With a level playing field, then, in family resources, higher ed￾ucation, economic op￾portunity, and fertil￾ity control, a critical mass of girls and young women have achieved—and are achieving—the his￾toric potential of their sex. Strong Women, Strong Girls? “A lot of the hopes of the feminist movement and the girls’ programming movement are being realized, but there’s a tremen￾dous amount of work still to be done, particularly for girls with￾out educational or economic advantages,” says Lindsay Hyde ’04, founder and executive director of Strong Women, Strong Girls (SWSG), a nonprofit organization that fosters high aspirations and success skills among low-income minority girls by involving them with strong female role models. Hyde’s inspiration was her own mother, a Miami single mom who cut the grass, tiled the bathroom floor, redid the electrical system, and “demonstrated for me that women could really do anything!” Keen to share her own experience with young girls, Hyde de￾signed and taught a curriculum based on historic and contempo￾rary women at the local elementary school during her last semes￾ter of high school. When she couldn’t find a girl-centered service opportunity at Harvard that fall, she used her curriculum to start a new afterschool program through Phillips Brooks House, beginning with six undergraduate women and 30 girls from the third, fourth, and fifth grades at Roxbury and Mission Hill ele￾mentary schools. Seven years later, SWSG serves 400 mostly African-American and Latina girls at 32 schools and community centers in Boston and Pittsburgh, with 120 mentors from seven colleges and universities. (For her work, Hyde recently received the Samuel S. Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an In￾dividual 35 or Under, one of the five Je≠erson Awards con￾ferred annually by the American Institute for Public Service.) To o≠set the e≠ects of poverty, gender stereotyping, and low expectations that can undermine girls’ academic confidence and direct them to narrow education and career options, SWSG combines the study of diverse female role models with team-mentoring, field trips, and community service. Two or three undergraduate mentors lead 10 to 12 girls in weekly lessons built around a particular skill, such as critical thinking. Sessions begin by reading the biography of a woman ex￾emplifying that skill, such as Sally Ride, the first American female as￾tronaut, in order to “paint a pic￾ture of the steps she needed to take to go from being 10 years old 38 January - February 2008

to being an astronaut, because that's one of the hardest things for right yet!"says Hyde, who was recently scouting wedding loca- our girls to figure out, "Hyde explains. Girls then apply the skill- tions with her fiance, Blair Baldwin'o2, Bog. In the course of of-the-week in a hands-on project--using everyday objects such graduating from college, working for a couple years, going back as paper plates and paper towel rolls to build space shuttles, for to graduate school, perhaps starting a company or nonprofit(as ample. Lessons conclude with journal writing, with prompts she has done), and having a family, the question her cohort asks like, "What are two ways that you'll use your critical thinking is, "How am I going to fit in all of these great things that I want skills this week? "SWSG also teaches coping skills(from healthy to do?" eating and exercise to stress management), and partners with Alpha girls want to do everything--have successful careers and sports-focused nonprofits to provide girls with a holistic experi- marriage and children, in sequence or combination. How will ence. During the last six weeks of the school year, the girls and they handle the realities of the workplace and the tough choices their mentors create a service project for their community. their own mothers faced? "It won't be quite as easy as it was for The volunteers, who serve as role models themselves, are a key them in high school and college, "says Dan Kindlon. "They'll get element of the Strong Women, Strong Girls program. These slapped around a little when they get out into the world, " he smart,successful young women from various backgrounds intro- thinks, "but theyre ready for the challenge. "And as Hyde points duce their inner-city students to diverse cultures, ideas, and ca- out, "Some of the structural challenges around balancing work reer paths. "The girls may see a woman who's an English major, and family-maternity- and paternity-leave policies, women's ome of the structural challenges around balancing work and family--maternity and paternity-leave policies, women's wages, and on-ramp/off-ramp opportunities in the workforce--have not caught up quite as fast as women's own belief in themselves and in their capacities who's really passionate about writing and poetry and literature, wages, and on-ramp/off-ramp opportunities in the workforce- working with a woman who's a physics major, who's really pas- have not caught up quite as fast as women,'s own belief in them sionate about science and electronics, "says Hyde. "They look up selves and in their capacities to both women, who are doing very different things with very In Kindlon's research, he found that financial success was a different interests and passion ollege be- top priority for nearly all the alpha girls surveyed, and that al- Many of these girls know few people who,ve gone to college be- most a third were determined to get rich. But they will en- sides their mentors, notes Hyde, but"they start to feel, ' Gosh, counter a persistent wage gap: in the United States, for each dol ollege is something that I could do. "To encourage this lar earned by white men, women overall still earn only 77 cents ense of familiarity, SWSG includes campus field trips. "We have and African-American and Hispanic women earn even less,64 some girls who now have been to Harvard three years in a row, and cents and 52 cents, respectively. A recent AAUW study found they really feel that it's a place that holds possibility for them to be that even though women earn higher grades than men, this supe- there. That's a tremendous change, to go from saying, I don't rior academic performance doesn't translate into higher-or Harvard campus and saying, "I feel like I belong here. I know percent of the salaries of their male peer, t ge, women make 8o know anybody who's ever go one to college to walking onto the even equal--compensation A year after coll rs later, the gap where I'm going, and this is a place that feels comfortable for me. widens The program works. Most parents feel their daughters have But alphas are starting to reverse the wage gap learned new skills(94 percent), increased their self-esteem( 88 time in large cities like New York, Boston, and Chicago. Accord percent), and strengthened their belief in themselves as a leader ing to Queens College sociologist Andrew Beveridge, women b (So percent). The mentors also benefit: nearly g5 percent report tween the ages of 21 to 3o working full time had median incomes greater self-confidence and empowerment. At many SWSG part- as much as 17 percent higher than their male peers-because 53 ner colleges, there are waiting lists of volunteers percent of the women had college degrees compared to 38 per- Strong Women, Strong Girls is helping distribute the benefits cent of the men. "There are going to be more living college-edu of feminism, yet the young women who volunteer often"come to cated women in this country in about five to 1o years than col- the work with less of a politically oriented agenda and much lege-educated men Historically, that,'s unprecedented, "notes more of a service-oriented agenda, "reports Hyde. Volunteers fre- Kindlon "Were going to see some really interesting changes in quently tell her, "I had positive experiences as a young woman, the next 2o or 3o years and I believe that it is incumbent on me to help other young Women's educational advantage will influence work, marria women also have positive experiences. "As a result, more inner- and family in unexpected ways. African-American women now city girls are breaking out of gender stereotypes and gaining the earn B A s at almost twice the rate of black males, for example, "emancipated confidence"of alpha psychology to expand their which is contributing to huge declines in their marriage rates, ducational and career opportunities. note Claudia Goldin and Lawrence Katz. Although marriage among educated whites is occurring later and more permanently Having It all2 many educated black women dont just delay marriage, they don' "THE MYTH OF HAVING IT ALL, and having it all at once, is what marry at all. With potential black male partners facing jobless my generation is working to figure out-and we haven't gotten it rates of up to so percent for high-school graduates and up to72 HARVARD MAGAZINE 39 Reprinted from Ha arvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

Harvard Magazine 39 to being an astronaut, because that’s one of the hardest things for our girls to figure out,” Hyde explains. Girls then apply the skill￾of-the-week in a hands-on project—using everyday objects such as paper plates and paper towel rolls to build space shuttles, for example. Lessons conclude with journal writing, with prompts like, “What are two ways that you’ll use your critical thinking skills this week?” SWSG also teaches coping skills (from healthy eating and exercise to stress management), and partners with sports-focused nonprofits to provide girls with a holistic experi￾ence. During the last six weeks of the school year, the girls and their mentors create a service project for their community. The volunteers, who serve as role models themselves, are a key element of the Strong Women, Strong Girls program. These smart, successful young women from various backgrounds intro￾duce their inner-city students to diverse cultures, ideas, and ca￾reer paths. “The girls may see a woman who’s an English major, who’s really passionate about writing and poetry and literature, working with a woman who’s a physics major, who’s really pas￾sionate about science and electronics,” says Hyde. “They look up to both women, who are doing very di≠erent things with very di≠erent interests and passions.” Many of these girls know few people who’ve gone to college be￾sides their mentors, notes Hyde, but “they start to feel, ‘Gosh, maybe college is something that I could do.’” To encourage this sense of familiarity, SWSG includes campus field trips. “We have some girls who now have been to Harvard three years in a row, and they really feel that it’s a place that holds possibility for them to be there. That’s a tremendous change, to go from saying, ‘I don’t know anybody who’s ever gone to college’ to walking onto the Harvard campus and saying, ‘I feel like I belong here. I know where I’m going, and this is a place that feels comfortable for me.’” The program works. Most parents feel their daughters have learned new skills (94 percent), increased their self-esteem (88 percent), and strengthened their belief in themselves as a leader (80 percent). The mentors also benefit: nearly 95 percent report greater self-confidence and empowerment. At many SWSG part￾ner colleges, there are waiting lists of volunteers. Strong Women, Strong Girls is helping distribute the benefits of feminism, yet the young women who volunteer often “come to the work with less of a politically oriented agenda and much more of a service-oriented agenda,” reports Hyde. Volunteers fre￾quently tell her, “I had positive experiences as a young woman, and I believe that it is incumbent on me to help other young women also have positive experiences.” As a result, more inner￾city girls are breaking out of gender stereotypes and gaining the “emancipated confidence” of alpha psychology to expand their educational and career opportunities. Having It All? “The myth of having it all, and having it all at once, is what my generation is working to figure out—and we haven’t gotten it right yet!” says Hyde, who was recently scouting wedding loca￾tions with her fiancé, Blair Baldwin ’02, B ’09. In the course of graduating from college, working for a couple years, going back to graduate school, perhaps starting a company or nonprofit (as she has done), and having a family, the question her cohort asks is, “How am I going to fit in all of these great things that I want to do?” Alpha girls want to do everything—have successful careers and marriage and children, in sequence or combination. How will they handle the realities of the workplace and the tough choices their own mothers faced? “It won’t be quite as easy as it was for them in high school and college,” says Dan Kindlon. “They’ll get slapped around a little when they get out into the world,” he thinks, “but they’re ready for the challenge.” And as Hyde points out, “Some of the structural challenges around balancing work and family—maternity- and paternity-leave policies, women’s wages, and on-ramp/o≠-ramp opportunities in the workforce— have not caught up quite as fast as women’s own belief in them￾selves and in their capacities.” In Kindlon’s research, he found that financial success was a top priority for nearly all the alpha girls surveyed, and that al￾most a third were determined to get rich. But they will en￾counter a persistent wage gap: in the United States, for each dol￾lar earned by white men, women overall still earn only 77 cents, and African-American and Hispanic women earn even less, 64 cents and 52 cents, respectively. A recent AAUW study found that even though women earn higher grades than men, this supe￾rior academic performance doesn’t translate into higher—or even equal—compensation. A year after college, women make 80 percent of the salaries of their male peers; 10 years later, the gap widens. But alphas are starting to reverse the wage gap for the first time in large cities like New York, Boston, and Chicago. Accord￾ing to Queens College sociologist Andrew Beveridge, women be￾tween the ages of 21 to 30 working full time had median incomes as much as 17 percent higher than their male peers—because 53 percent of the women had college degrees compared to 38 per￾cent of the men. “There are going to be more living college-edu￾cated women in this country in about five to 10 years than col￾lege-educated men. Historically, that’s unprecedented,” notes Kindlon. “We’re going to see some really interesting changes in the next 20 or 30 years.” Women’s educational advantage will influence work, marriage, and family in unexpected ways. African-American women now earn B.A.s at almost twice the rate of black males, for example, which is contributing to huge declines in their marriage rates, note Claudia Goldin and Lawrence Katz. Although marriage among educated whites is occurring later and more permanently, many educated black women don’t just delay marriage, they don’t marry at all. With potential black male partners facing jobless rates of up to 50 percent for high-school graduates and up to 72 ome of the structural challenges around balancing work and family—maternity￾and paternity-leave policies, women’s wages, and on-ramp/off-ramp opportunities in the workforce—have not caught up quite as fast as women’s own belief in “Sthemselves and in their capacities

percent for dropouts, and interracial marriage still a rarity, edu- tor jobs and often for professional women, who employ and rely cated and employed black women often decide to raise their chil- upon low-income women(disproportionately women of color sional black women are starting to enter interracial relationships, Luttrell. The current rhetoric about work-family conflicts en however, so the alpha generation may change these marriage pat- phasizes personal choices regarding working and/or mothering terns. Meanwhile, Katz and Goldin believe the "marriage gap"re- "but this overlooks the larger mother-care-work crisis caused by inforces an increasingly polarized and unequal socioeconomic en- unequal opportunity, declining social services, and unjust poli vironment for children cies that pit employment demands on wage-poor mothers y "The mothering piece is really the fault line when it comes to against the care needs of their children ss and race, "says ethnographer Wendy Luttrell, author of Not all young women will choose to be mothers(26 percent of Schoolsmart and Mothenwise: Working-Class Women's Identity and Schooling white women born in 196o with a college degree are childless, for (1997). For middle- and upper-class girls and women struggling example), but the majority will. With 72 percent of American to balance rewarding work and family, "the tradeoff is about mothers working outside the home, the work/family challenge is being the perfect mom and doing the perfect job-about being widespread. "From a women's rights point of view, that's still the able to do everything, "she says. But for poor and working-class, biggest hurdle to overcome, "notes Kindlon increasingly single, mothers, "It's not about tradeoffs, it's about, Work/family issues play a significant role in the wage gap How am I going to support my kids and keep them safe? "For Some companies avoid investing in training women who may these women, the challenge is meeting the double-duty demands take time off for maternity and childrearing, according to Bur of mothering and low-wage work, predominantly in service-sec. bank professor of political economy Torben Iversen. Once career From title ix to riot grrrls ODAY'S AMERICAN GIRLS AND YOUNG WOMEN may be on female athletes who made varsity or went on to the Olympics the daughters of feminism, but their world isn't always but on the masses of girls who grew up with the expectation, the one envisioned by their foremothers. "Little girls "Sure, I'll play soccer. Why not?" dress in pink and they're princesses, but at the same time Female sports participation has skyrocketed since Richard theyre going to grow up to wear five-inch heels and kick ass!" Nixon signed Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments to says Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin, an old-school the 1964 Civil Rights Act into law--by 450 percent in college and feminist who wants more equality, not difference, between the an astounding goo percent in high school (to 2.9 million girls)in sexes. The rise of "girl power"and the celebration of"differ- 2005-2006.(Not everyone has benefited as intended. For inner- ence"-propelled by forces ranging from Title IX to feminist city girls, for example, sports fields are often nonexistent and ounk-rock bands--have changed American culture, although schools can't afford the expense of equipment, lessons, and not all girls have benefited equally The struggle for women's rights in the United States is often Furthermore, Title IX is not just about sports. It not only bar described in terms of"waves "First-wave feminism culminated bias(in recruitment, financial aid, benefits, and scholarships) with women's suffrage in 1920, while the resurgent second-wave against either sex in any educational eiving federal aid. feminism of the 1g6os and ' 7os focused on reproductive freedom, it also outlaws sexual harassment and protects equal access to sexual harassment, equal pay, and access to education and jobs. math and science, higher education, career training, technology, The second-wave mother of the girls' movement was Carol Gilli- and employment. Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associate professor gan, formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard in human development and education and the author of Pregnant Graduate School of Education, whose book on women,s psycho- Bodies, Fertile Minds: Gender, Race, and the Schooling of Pregnant Teens gical development, In a Different Voice(1982), inspired countless (2003), notes that"Title IX was also initiated so that pregnant studies on girls and sweeping educational changes. Another sec- girls could stay in school. "(Public schools used to expel preg ond-wave development was Title IX nant students and bar visibly pregnant teachers from clas "My students have been deeply touched by Title IX"and its ex- rooms. "Title IX got rid of the de jure discrimination that pregnant pectation that girls would participate in sports equally to boys, girls cannot be in school, "Luttrell says, "but de facto discrimina- says assistant professor of studies of women, gender, and sexual- tion-either isolating the girls from resources and regular ity and of history and literature Robin Bernstein, when asked classes, or mainstreaming them without support-"is still quite about girls' self-esteem Her work in performance studies exam- prevalent. " ines"what people do with bodies. "Athletics, she says, sig. While the effects of Title IX were taking hold, a"third wave" nificantly changes a girls relationship with her body. To help her of American feminism--advocating "difference"and"girl students understand the laws impact, she tells them that in the ness"was rising. Feminist performance artists like the Guer 197os,"a sports bra was a specialized piece of sports equipment, rilla Girls and the V-Girls reclaimed the word "girl"in the 1g8os not something you could buy at any department store-which and in the early 1ggos, the punk band Bikini Kill famously put speaks to a huge change in expectations for women and athlet- the grrr into "grrrl" and helped catalyze a movement of Riot ics. "People don't recognize Title IX's impact, she adds, "not just Grrrls. Young third-wavers resisted sexism through their music, Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

percent for dropouts, and interracial marriage still a rarity, edu￾cated and employed black women often decide to raise their chil￾dren out of wedlock. Recent reports suggest that some profes￾sional black women are starting to enter interracial relationships, however, so the alpha generation may change these marriage pat￾terns. Meanwhile, Katz and Goldin believe the “marriage gap” re￾inforces an increasingly polarized and unequal socioeconomic en￾vironment for children. “The mothering piece is really the fault line when it comes to class and race,” says ethnographer Wendy Luttrell, author of Schoolsmart and Motherwise: Working-Class Women’s Identity and Schooling (1997). For middle- and upper-class girls and women struggling to balance rewarding work and family, “the tradeo≠ is about being the perfect mom and doing the perfect job—about being able to do everything,” she says. But for poor and working-class, increasingly single, mothers, “It’s not about tradeo≠s, it’s about, ‘How am I going to support my kids and keep them safe?’” For these women, the challenge is meeting the double-duty demands of mothering and low-wage work, predominantly in service-sec￾tor jobs and often for professional women, who employ and rely upon low-income women (disproportionately women of color and recent immigrants) to do all kinds of family-care work, says Luttrell. The current rhetoric about work-family conflicts em￾phasizes personal choices regarding working and/or mothering, “but this overlooks the larger mother-care-work crisis caused by unequal opportunity, declining social services, and unjust poli￾cies that pit employment demands on wage-poor mothers against the care needs of their children.” Not all young women will choose to be mothers (26 percent of white women born in 1960 with a college degree are childless, for example), but the majority will. With 72 percent of American mothers working outside the home, the work/family challenge is widespread. “From a women’s rights point of view, that’s still the biggest hurdle to overcome,” notes Kindlon. Work/family issues play a significant role in the wage gap. Some companies avoid investing in training women who may take time o≠ for maternity and childrearing, according to Bur￾bank professor of political economy Torben Iversen. Once career T oday’s american girls and young women may be the daughters of feminism, but their world isn’t always the one envisioned by their foremothers. “Little girls dress in pink and they’re princesses, but at the same time they’re going to grow up to wear five-inch heels and kick ass!” says Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin, an old-school feminist who wants more equality, not di≠erence, between the sexes. The rise of “girl power” and the celebration of “di≠er￾ence”—propelled by forces ranging from Title IX to feminist punk-rock bands—have changed American culture, although not all girls have benefited equally. The struggle for women’s rights in the United States is often described in terms of “waves.” First-wave feminism culminated with women’s su≠rage in 1920, while the resurgent second-wave feminism of the 1960s and ’70s focused on reproductive freedom, sexual harassment, equal pay, and access to education and jobs. The second-wave mother of the girls’ movement was Carol Gilli￾gan, formerly Graham professor of gender studies at Harvard Graduate School of Education, whose book on women’s psycho￾logical development, In a Di≠erent Voice (1982), inspired countless studies on girls and sweeping educational changes. Another sec￾ond-wave development was Title IX. “My students have been deeply touched by Title IX” and its ex￾pectation that girls would participate in sports equally to boys, says assistant professor of studies of women, gender, and sexual￾ity and of history and literature Robin Bernstein, when asked about girls’ self-esteem. Her work in performance studies exam￾ines “what people do with bodies.” Athletics, she says, sig￾nificantly changes a girl’s relationship with her body. To help her students understand the law’s impact, she tells them that in the 1970s, “a sports bra was a specialized piece of sports equipment, not something you could buy at any department store—which speaks to a huge change in expectations for women and athlet￾ics.” People don’t recognize Title IX’s impact, she adds, “not just on female athletes who made varsity or went on to the Olympics, but on the masses of girls who grew up with the expectation, ‘Sure, I’ll play soccer. Why not?’” Female sports participation has skyrocketed since Richard Nixon signed Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments to the 1964 Civil Rights Act into law—by 450 percent in college and an astounding 900 percent in high school (to 2.9 million girls) in 2005-2006. (Not everyone has benefited as intended. For inner￾city girls, for example, sports fields are often nonexistent and schools can’t a≠ord the expense of equipment, lessons, and travel.) Furthermore, Title IX is not just about sports. It not only bans bias (in recruitment, financial aid, benefits, and scholarships) against either sex in any educational setting receiving federal aid, it also outlaws sexual harassment and protects equal access to math and science, higher education, career training, technology, and employment. Wendy Luttrell, Aronson associate professor in human development and education and the author of Pregnant Bodies, Fertile Minds: Gender, Race, and the Schooling of Pregnant Teens (2003), notes that “Title IX was also initiated so that pregnant girls could stay in school.” (Public schools used to expel preg￾nant students and bar visibly pregnant teachers from class￾rooms. “Title IX got rid of the de jure discrimination that pregnant girls cannot be in school,” Luttrell says, “but de facto discrimina￾tion”—either isolating the girls from resources and regular classes, or mainstreaming them without support—“is still quite prevalent.”) While the e≠ects of Title IX were taking hold, a “third wave” of American feminism—advocating “di≠erence” and “girl￾ness”—was rising. Feminist performance artists like the Guer￾rilla Girls and the V-Girls reclaimed the word “girl” in the 1980s, and in the early 1990s, the punk band Bikini Kill famously put the grrr into “grrrl” and helped catalyze a movement of Riot Grrrls. Young third-wavers resisted sexism through their music, From Title IX to Riot Grrrls

hoices are taken into account, Iversen has found that"statistical percent)in equal numbers, but there was a significant gender discrimination"against women(basing judgments about indi- gap in median starting salaries: men were contracted to earn viduals from a group on average assumptions about that group) $1o, ooo more. "That's entirely explained by which sectors they che wage gender gap, while traditional sex discrimination re- a male-dominated field ). Eleven women planned to work at non mains substantial but is diminishing. He suggests that behav- governmental organizations, but no men, adds Goldin:"Men ioral differences play chose to work 8o hours a week at Goldman Sachs and make tend to negotiate better salaries or bonuses, $60,000, not including bonuses. "However, within banking or while women tend to accept what's offered, VOTES fo consulting, they report, the wage gap disappears Goldin is concerned about the "extremely large"economic tion" more than women. (Because studies WOMEN penalty for choosing to balance family and career down the line. female and male women who negotiate, female reluctance to twyers straight out of law school have ite may be self- protective against bias. similar salaries. she notes. but 10 According to the Harvard Crimson survey of the class of 2007, such factors are still in play for re- cent alphas. Women and men were heading to graduate school(22 percent) and finding jobs(5o the Internet, and grass-roots activism, on the feminism that championed "girl stuff,"fromS one hand, and on the other, through a "girlie Barbie dolls and high heels to knitting "Girl Power. "the third wave's best-known catch phrase, went mainstream as the slogan for the British pop group the Spice Girls. The U.SDe- artment of Health and Human Services even named its first girl-centered public-health initiative Girl Power! (www.girlpower.gov).Todaygirls'programming cludes cultural staples like the Ms. Foundation's original Take Our Daughters to Work Day (now Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day) and organizations like Strong Women, Strong Girls(SWSG) Even the preferred sex of infants has acquire girl-power spin " Now people say, Oh, I'm having a boy. This is going to be so difficult, "says Goldin. "We ve seen a huge shift in what is considered to be he perfect child--little girls are just easier, 'theyre "smarter,'they 'mature faster "Popular treatments of sex-difference research may be responsible Men, Get Ready to Develop Brain Envy, "declares he back cover of The Female Brain, by neuropsychic- trist Louann Brizendine. a former Harvard Medical School resident and professor Brizendine has found a generational divide in the response to her work on this biology-psychology connection. Girls and women under 30 send grateful e-mails, she says: "Younger women have come up in the world not thinking they have limitations on adjunct lecturer at the Harvard School of Public Health, found their intellect at all. They, ve embraced their own intelligence, and among the alpha girls he studies. SWSG's Lindsay Hyde'o4 re they're moving forward. But women of her own over-5o genera- ports that her volunteer mentors "have really differing levels of tion"dont like it. Theyre afraid the message will hurt women in- comfort with what feminism means. "Demonizing rants against stead of help them. If you say anything about difference, it means "male-bashing feminazis"are partly to blame, so SWSG organiza- unequal, and unequal means women lose. "Brizendine was a sec- tionally defines feminism, which "has become such a flash poi ond-waver, but now, she says, "I call myself a third-wave feminist, in the political realm, as'ensuring that everyone, men and women, hich means embracing and celebrating the differences. have access to the resources they need to make positive choices Whatever the wave, few daughters of feminism identify them- in their lives, " says Hyde. "Using that definition, I absolutely selves by the "f-word, "as Dan Kindlon, clinical psychologist and consider myself a feminist Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

choices are taken into account, Iversen has found that “statistical discrimination” against women (basing judgments about indi￾viduals from a group on average assumptions about that group) is a major cause of the wage gap. Katz believes that among col￾lege graduates, career “choice” is likely the largest factor causing the wage gender gap, while traditional sex discrimination re￾mains substantial but is diminishing. He suggests that behav￾ioral di≠erences play a secondary role: men tend to negotiate better salaries or bonuses, while women tend to accept what’s o≠ered, and men seem to thrive on “pure competi￾tion” more than women. (Because studies have found that some employers “penalize” women who negotiate, female reluctance to negotiate may be self-protective against bias.) According to the Harvard Crimson survey of the class of 2007, such factors are still in play for re￾cent alphas. Women and men were heading to graduate school (22 percent) and finding jobs (50 percent) in equal numbers, but there was a significant gender gap in median starting salaries: men were contracted to earn $10,000 more. “That’s entirely explained by which sectors they go into,” says Katz: 58 percent of men chose finance, compared to 43 percent of women (still a large percentage of women choosing a male-dominated field). Eleven women planned to work at non￾governmental organizations, but no men, adds Goldin: “Men chose to work 80 hours a week at Goldman Sachs and make $60,000, not including bonuses.” However, within banking or consulting, they report, the wage gap disappears. Goldin is concerned about the “extremely large” economic penalty for choosing to balance family and career down the line. Female and male lawyers straight out of law school have similar salaries, she notes, but 10 the Internet, and grass-roots activism, on the one hand, and on the other, through a “girlie” feminism that championed “girl stu≠,” from Barbie dolls and high heels to knitting. “Girl Power,” the third wave’s best-known catch phrase, went mainstream as the slogan for the British pop group the Spice Girls. The U.S. De￾partment of Health and Human Services even named its first girl-centered public-health initiative Girl Power! (www.girlpower.gov). Today girls’ programming in￾cludes cultural staples like the Ms. Foundation’s original Take Our Daughters to Work Day (now Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day) and organizations like Strong Women, Strong Girls (SWSG). Even the preferred sex of infants has acquired a girl-power spin. “Now people say, ‘Oh, I’m having a boy. This is going to be so di∞cult,’” says Goldin. “We’ve seen a huge shift in what is considered to be the perfect child—little girls are just ‘easier,’ they’re ‘smarter,’ they ‘mature faster.’” Popular treatments of sex-di≠erence research may be responsible: “Men, Get Ready to Develop Brain Envy,” declares the back cover of The Female Brain, by neuropsychia￾trist Louann Brizendine, a former Harvard Medical School resident and professor. Brizendine has found a generational divide in the response to her work on this biology-psychology connection. Girls and women under 30 send grateful e-mails, she says: “Younger women have come up in the world not thinking they have limitations on their intellect at all. They’ve embraced their own intelligence, and they’re moving forward.” But women of her own over-50 genera￾tion “don’t like it. They’re afraid the message will hurt women in￾stead of help them. If you say anything about di≠erence, it means unequal, and unequal means women lose.” Brizendine was a sec￾ond-waver, but now, she says, “I call myself a third-wave feminist, which means embracing and celebrating the di≠erences.” Whatever the wave, few daughters of feminism identify them￾selves by the “f-word,” as Dan Kindlon, clinical psychologist and adjunct lecturer at the Harvard School of Public Health, found among the alpha girls he studies. SWSG’s Lindsay Hyde ’04 re￾ports that her volunteer mentors “have really di≠ering levels of comfort with what feminism means.” Demonizing rants against “male-bashing feminazis” are partly to blame, so SWSG organiza￾tionally defines feminism, which “has become such a flash point in the political realm, as ‘ensuring that everyone, men and women, have access to the resources they need to make positive choices in their lives,’” says Hyde. “Using that definition, I absolutely consider myself a feminist

years later their earnings are very different. Many professions professional women comfortably "wrap together career and fam were structured for"the Father Knows Best world, when every per- ily, "notes Goldin. Many can even afford to"opt out"for a couple in the labor market had a mirror image in the home, "which of years to be with their kids. "I have no crocodile tears for tional clock often conflicts with their biological clock, and many concerned. "They aren't going to do aswel/ t who early thir- freed time for the paid worker. Hence"rising to the top"(tenure, women at this level, "she says It's the women in their early thir- partnership, profit shares)required enormous amounts of time- ties who dropped out of high school (o percent), or graduated on average 8o hours a week. For women, the traditional promo- but didn't do any college(25 percent), abe who want children don't"opt into"the partner track, says Goldin, trong Women Girls seeks to change those statistics hoosing instead less demanding-and less remunerative--cor for a future generation. SWSG's Lindsey Hyde also supports porate counsel, government, or nonprofit work, or having a small flextime solutions in the present. Her female staff find creative firm (Being slow to adapt to women,s realities has cost law firms ways to balance work and family, and their partners and spouses dearly, however, prompting restructuring that will benefit alpha are assuming more domestic responsibilities, too. "Women in my rls. To attract and retain female attorneys, some firms now offer generation are asking their partners to be more involved, and flextime partner tracks; "lattice"rather than "ladder"careers- considering that before entering a more serious relationship, "she climbing interspersed with slower childbearing periods; on-site says. "Is this somebody who's going to support me in the choice daycare: flat-rate or project-based compensation rather than bill- that I make, whatever those choices may be?" able hours; and part-time partnerships. Alpha girls won't make the same mistake their mothers made, The alpha girls Kindlon studied were aware that "having it all" says Kindlon-"have a job and do go percent of the domestic n't easy. Most knew their career path: medicine was at the top stuff. They'll tell their husbands or partners, "We,'re going to (25 percent), followed by STEM(science, technology, engineer- split this. If you're home, you're going to change diapers the same hen comes the critical, pivotal point of turning 30, when " you' ve got about 10 years left to have kids"and alpha confidence falters. "All of a sudden my students start to think, How am I going to reserve part of my energy, my self, my creativity, and my time,to have kids?' They get anxious ing,math) fields and art/music (13 percent each), business(12 way I do. If the house is dirty, either I'll get used to it, or you're percent), and politics/law (9 percent). Medicine was the first going to help me out with it. "This generation won't feel"it's their choice, Kindlon believes, because most female physicians can and work to do, as a lot of women today do" as a result, men will pick do practice part-time, allowing a luc crave satis sfying career with up a bigger share and womens lives won't feel as unbalanced. time for kids. By specialty, the percentage of female residents in "It's very possible that my daughters will be the primary 2003 was highest for obstetrics/gynecology(7 percent), fol- breadwinners in their homes, " Kindlon spece for them!"Single pathology and psychiatry (so percent each), family medicine(49 mothers already carry that responsibility, but more married percent), and surgery (24 percent). How might subsequent mothers will, too. In fact, "if the college-educated person is mak choices influence alpha women,s salaries?"Women are usi ng more money and has health benefits and the other person heir market power not to maximize their earnings, but to get the doesn't, who's going to cut back on the career? There's no ques- job that allows more balance, "says Katz. Theyre forming group tion, Ive seen it. I have nephews whose wives are working, and ob/gyn practices and earning $140, 000 a year for 5o-hour weeks theyre st and not coming in at night, while men are making $18o, ooo for 60 and not ing home with the kids, because money's behind it, ings stopping that trend. "(Some estimates number hours and taking the emergency calls U.S. stay-at-home dads at 2 million. )The real fuel for the engine The work/family challenge involves more than wages, is going to be that women will have more money, so they'll have course. When young women face the reality of child-rearing, more of a say over what happens, " he adds. With parenting no here may be a psychological penalty, says Louann Brizendine. longer"women,s work"alone, perhaps a true work/life balance is Her psychiatry-neurology residents are"two years out from possible for men and women. hanging up their shingle, "she reports, "and I don't see them gi For Hyde, a different responsibility is foremost. "One of the ing a second thought to anything holding them back from what things that is really important for women of my generation to be they want to do-up to age 27 or 28. The question of children cognizant of is that we have had tremendous opportunities and looms ahead, but"they go full steam with their ambition--the that it is incumbent on us to make sure that the young women- alpha female is out there doing her thing. Then comes the criti- and young men-who are coming up behind us have access to cal, pivotal point of turning 30, when "you've got about 1o years those same opportunities. As people who have been so privileged left to have kids"-and alpha confidence falters. "All of a sudden to live in this time period, we really do have a responsibility to my students start to think, How am I going to reserve part of my continue to make change moving forward. energy, my self, my creativity, and my time, to have kids?"They get anxious. Contributing editor Harbour Fraser Hodder, Ph D'gl, lives in central Massa Of course, with money for good daycare and good schools, chusetts. 42 JANUARY- FEBRUARY 2008 Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746

42 January - February 2008 years later their earnings are very di≠erent. Many professions were structured for “the Father Knows Best world, when every per￾son in the labor market had a mirror image in the home,” which freed time for the paid worker. Hence “rising to the top” (tenure, partnership, profit shares) required enormous amounts of time— on average 80 hours a week. For women, the traditional promo￾tional clock often conflicts with their biological clock, and many who want children don’t “opt into” the partner track, says Goldin, choosing instead less demanding—and less remunerative—cor￾porate counsel, government, or nonprofit work, or having a small firm. (Being slow to adapt to women’s realities has cost law firms dearly, however, prompting restructuring that will benefit alpha girls. To attract and retain female attorneys, some firms now o≠er flextime partner tracks; “lattice” rather than “ladder” careers— climbing interspersed with slower childbearing periods; on-site daycare; flat-rate or project-based compensation rather than bill￾able hours; and part-time partnerships.) The alpha girls Kindlon studied were aware that “having it all” isn’t easy. Most knew their career path: medicine was at the top (25 percent), followed by STEM (science, technology, engineer￾ing, math) fields and art/music (13 percent each), business (12 percent), and politics/law (9 percent). Medicine was the first choice, Kindlon believes, because most female physicians can and do practice part-time, allowing a lucrative, satisfying career with time for kids. By specialty, the percentage of female residents in 2003 was highest for obstetrics/gynecology (71 percent), fol￾lowed by pediatrics (65 percent), dermatology (57 percent), pathology and psychiatry (50 percent each), family medicine (49 percent), and surgery (24 percent). How might subsequent choices influence alpha women’s salaries? “Women are using their market power not to maximize their earnings, but to get the job that allows more balance,” says Katz. They’re forming group ob/gyn practices and earning $140,000 a year for 50-hour weeks and not coming in at night, while men are making $180,000 for 60 hours and taking the emergency calls. The work/family challenge involves more than wages, of course. When young women face the reality of child-rearing, there may be a psychological penalty, says Louann Brizendine. Her psychiatry-neurology residents are “two years out from hanging up their shingle,” she reports, “and I don’t see them giv￾ing a second thought to anything holding them back from what they want to do—up to age 27 or 28.” The question of children looms ahead, but “they go full steam with their ambition—the alpha female is out there doing her thing.” Then comes the criti￾cal, pivotal point of turning 30, when “you’ve got about 10 years left to have kids”—and alpha confidence falters. “All of a sudden my students start to think, ‘How am I going to reserve part of my energy, my self, my creativity, and my time, to have kids?’ They get anxious.” Of course, with money for good daycare and good schools, professional women comfortably “wrap together career and fam￾ily,” notes Goldin. Many can even a≠ord to “opt out” for a couple of years to be with their kids. “I have no crocodile tears for women at this level,” she says. It’s the women in their early thir￾ties who dropped out of high school (10 percent), or graduated but didn’t do any college (25 percent), about whom Goldin is concerned. “They aren’t going to do as well.” Strong Women, Strong Girls seeks to change those statistics for a future generation. SWSG’s Lindsey Hyde also supports flextime solutions in the present. Her female sta≠ find creative ways to balance work and family, and their partners and spouses are assuming more domestic responsibilities, too. “Women in my generation are asking their partners to be more involved, and considering that before entering a more serious relationship,” she says. “Is this somebody who’s going to support me in the choices that I make, whatever those choices may be?” Alpha girls won’t make the same mistake their mothers made, says Kindlon—“have a job and do 90 percent of the domestic stu≠.” They’ll tell their husbands or partners, “We’re going to split this. If you’re home, you’re going to change diapers the same way I do. If the house is dirty, either I’ll get used to it, or you’re going to help me out with it.” This generation won’t feel “it’s their work to do, as a lot of women today do”; as a result, men will pick up a bigger share and women’s lives won’t feel as unbalanced. “It’s very possible that my daughters will be the primary breadwinners in their homes,” Kindlon speculates. “They’re cer￾tainly not looking for a husband to provide for them!” Single mothers already carry that responsibility, but more married mothers will, too. In fact, “if the college-educated person is mak￾ing more money and has health benefits and the other person doesn’t, who’s going to cut back on the career? There’s no ques￾tion, I’ve seen it. I have nephews whose wives are working, and they’re staying home with the kids, because money’s behind it, and nothing’s stopping that trend.” (Some estimates number U.S. stay-at-home dads at 2 million.) “The real fuel for the engine is going to be that women will have more money, so they’ll have more of a say over what happens,” he adds. With parenting no longer “women’s work” alone, perhaps a true work/life balance is possible for men and women. For Hyde, a di≠erent responsibility is foremost. “One of the things that is really important for women of my generation to be cognizant of is that we have had tremendous opportunities and that it is incumbent on us to make sure that the young women— and young men—who are coming up behind us have access to those same opportunities. As people who have been so privileged to live in this time period, we really do have a responsibility to continue to make change moving forward.” Contributing editor Harbour Fraser Hodder, Ph.D. ’91, lives in central Massa￾chusetts. hen comes the critical, pivotal point of turning 30, when “you’ve got about 10 years left to have kids”—and alpha confidence falters. “All of a sudden my students start to think, ‘How am I going to reserve part of my energy, my self, my creativity, and my time, to T have kids?’ They get anxious

口〓冒 Reprinted from Harvard Magazine. For more information, contact Harvard Magazine, Inc. at 617-495-5746