lower Amazon of Brazil was reduced to disaster or the total impoverishment of 78)in contrast to a"noble savage"view a semiarid desert in just fifty years the tribals. Bodley, 1983) which, according to through such a process(Ackermann The reality of ecocide certainly fo- Rambo (1985: 2), mistakenly"claims 1964). The soils in the Azande area are cuses attention on the fundamental con- that traditional peoples almost always also now seriously threatened with later- trasts between tribal and industrial live in essential harmony with their envi- ization and other problems as a result of systems in their use of natural resources, the government-promoted cotton devel- who controls them, and how they are man- This is surely a false issue. To stress, The dangers of overdevelopment and cause they control resources that outsiders resources for sustained yield win ge their opment scheme(McNeil, 1972) aged. Tribal peoples are victimized s I do. that tribals tend to man the vulnerability of local resource sys- demand. The resources exist because trib- tively self-sufficient subsistence econo- tems have long been recognized by both als managed them conservatively. How- mies is not to make them either innocent anthropologists and tribal peoples them- ever, as with the issue of the health children or natural men. Nor is it to deny selves. But the pressures for change have consequences of detribalization, some that tribals"disrupt"their environment been overwhelming. In 1948 the Maya anthropologists minimize the adaptive and may never be in absolute"balance villagers of Chan Kom complained to achievements of tribal groups and seem with nature Redfield (1962)about the shortening of unwilling to concede that ecocide might The ecocide issue is perhaps most their swidden cycles, which they cor- be a consequence of cultural change. dramatically illustrated by two sets of rectly attributed to increasing population Critics attack an exaggerated"noble sav- satellite photos taken over the Brazilian pressures. Redfield told them, however, age"image of tribals living in perfect rain forests of ROndonia(Allard that they had no choice but to go"for- harmony with nature and having no visi- McIntyre, 1988: 780-781) Photos taken ward with technology"(Redfield, 1962: ble impact on their surroundings. They in 1973, when Rondonia was still a tribal 178). In Assam, swidden cycles were then show that tribals do in fact modify domain, show virtually unbroken rain shortened from an average of twelve the environment, and they conclude that forest. The 1987 satellite photos, taken years to only two or three within just there is no significant difference be- after just fifteen years of highway con- twenty years, and anthropologists tween how tribals and industrial societ- struction and"development"by outsid- warned that the limits of swiddening ies treat their environments. For ers, show more than 20 percent of the would soon be reached(Burling, 1963: example, Charles Wagley declared that forest destroyed. The surviving Indians 311-312). In the Pacific, anthropologists Brazilian Indians such as the Tapirape were being concentrated by FUNAI warned of population pressures on lim Brazils national Indian foundation) ited resources as early as the 1930s are not"natural men. "They have into what would soon become mere is (Keesing, 1941: 64-65). These warnings human vices just as we do. They lands of forest in a ravaged landscape. It seemed fully justified, considering the do not live“ In tune” with nature is irrelevant to quibble about whether fact that the crowded Tikopians were any more than I do, in fact, they tribals are noble childlike. or innocent prompted by population pressures on can often be as destructive of their or about the precise meaning of balance their tiny island to suggest that infant- environment, within their limita- with nature, carrying capacity, or adapta- cide be legalized. The warnings have tions. as some civilized men. The tion, to recognize that for the past 200 been dramatically reinforced since then Tapirape not Innocent or years rapid environmental deterioration by the doubling of Micronesia's popula childlike in any wa on an unprecedented global scale has fol- tion in just the fourteen years between Wagley,1977:302 lowed the wresting of control of vast ar- 1958and1972,from70.600to114,645 eas of the world from tribal groups by while consumption levels have soared Anthropologist Terry Rambo demon- resource-hungry industrial societies By 1985 Micronesia's population had strated that the Semang of the Malaysian reached 162. 321 rain forests have a measurable impact on DEPRIVATION AND The environmental hazards of eco- their environment. In his monograph Ⅰ SCRIMINATION nomic development and rapid population Primitive Polluters, Rambo(1985)re growth have become generally recog- ported that the Semang live in smoke- Contact with European culture has nized only since worldwide concerns filled houses. They sneeze and spread given them a knowledge of great over environmental issues began in the germs, breathe, and thus emit carbon di wealth, opportunity and privilege early 1970s. Unfortunately, there is as oxide. They clear small gardens, contrib- but only very limited avenues by yet little indication that the leaders of the uting"particulate matter"to the hich to acquire these things new developing nations are sufficiently disturbing the local climate because be, 1968 concerned with environmental limita- cleared areas proved measurably warmer tions On the contrary, governments are and drier than the shady forest. Rambo Unwittingly, tribal peoples have had the forcing tribal peoples into a self-rein- concluded that his research "demon- burden of perpetual relative deprivation forcing spiral of population growth and strates the essential functional similarity thrust upon them by acceptance-either intensified resource exploitation, which of the environmental interactions of by themselves or by the governments ad- may be stopped only by environmental primitive and civilized societies"(1985: ministering them-of the standards ofArticle 35. The Price of Progress 6 lower Amazon of Brazil was reduced to a semiarid desert in just fifty years through such a process (Ackermann, 1964). The soils in the Azande area are also now seriously threatened with later￾ization and other problems as a result of the government-promoted cotton devel￾opment scheme (McNeil, 1972). The dangers of overdevelopment and the vulnerability of local resource sys￾tems have long been recognized by both anthropologists and tribal peoples them￾selves. But the pressures for change have been overwhelming. In 1948 the Maya villagers of Chan Kom complained to Redfield (1962) about the shortening of their swidden cycles, which they cor￾rectly attributed to increasing population pressures. Redfield told them, however, that they had no choice but to go “for￾ward with technology” (Redfield, 1962: 178). In Assam, swidden cycles were shortened from an average of twelve years to only two or three within just twenty years, and anthropologists warned that the limits of swiddening would soon be reached (Burling, 1963: 311–312). In the Pacific, anthropologists warned of population pressures on lim￾ited resources as early as the 1930s (Keesing, 1941: 64–65). These warnings seemed fully justified, considering the fact that the crowded Tikopians were prompted by population pressures on their tiny island to suggest that infanti￾cide be legalized. The warnings have been dramatically reinforced since then by the doubling of Micronesia’s popula￾tion in just the fourteen years between 1958 and 1972, from 70,600 to 114,645, while consumption levels have soared. By 1985 Micronesia’s population had reached 162,321. The environmental hazards of eco￾nomic development and rapid population growth have become generally recog￾nized only since worldwide concerns over environmental issues began in the early 1970s. Unfortunately, there is as yet little indication that the leaders of the new developing nations are sufficiently concerned with environmental limita￾tions. On the contrary, governments are forcing tribal peoples into a self-rein￾forcing spiral of population growth and intensified resource exploitation, which may be stopped only by environmental disaster or the total impoverishment of the tribals. The reality of ecocide certainly fo￾cuses attention on the fundamental con￾trasts between tribal and industrial systems in their use of natural resources, who controls them, and how they are man￾aged. Tribal peoples are victimized be￾cause they control resources that outsiders demand. The resources exist because trib￾als managed them conservatively. How￾ever, as with the issue of the health consequences of detribalization, some anthropologists minimize the adaptive achievements of tribal groups and seem unwilling to concede that ecocide might be a consequence of cultural change. Critics attack an exaggerated “noble sav￾age” image of tribals living in perfect harmony with nature and having no visi￾ble impact on their surroundings. They then show that tribals do in fact modify the environment, and they conclude that there is no significant difference be￾tween how tribals and industrial societ￾ies treat their environments. For example, Charles Wagley declared that Brazilian Indians such as the Tapirape are not “natural men.” They have human vices just as we do.… They do not live “in tune” with nature any more than I do; in fact, they can often be as destructive of their environment, within their limita￾tions, as some civilized men. The Tapirape are not innocent or childlike in any way. Wagley, 1977: 302 Anthropologist Terry Rambo demon￾strated that the Semang of the Malaysian rain forests have a measurable impact on their environment. In his monograph Primitive Polluters, Rambo (1985) re￾ported that the Semang live in smoke￾filled houses. They sneeze and spread germs, breathe, and thus emit carbon di￾oxide. They clear small gardens, contrib￾uting “particulate matter” to the air and disturbing the local climate because cleared areas proved measurably warmer and drier than the shady forest. Rambo concluded that his research “demon￾strates the essential functional similarity of the environmental interactions of primitive and civilized societies” (1985: 78) in contrast to a “noble savage” view (Bodley, 1983) which, according to Rambo (1985: 2), mistakenly “claims that traditional peoples almost always live in essential harmony with their envi￾ronment.” This is surely a false issue. To stress, as I do, that tribals tend to manage their resources for sustained yield within rela￾tively self-sufficient subsistence econo￾mies is not to make them either innocent children or natural men. Nor is it to deny that tribals “disrupt” their environment and may never be in absolute “balance” with nature. The ecocide issue is perhaps most dramatically illustrated by two sets of satellite photos taken over the Brazilian rain forests of Rôndonia (Allard & McIntyre, 1988: 780–781). Photos taken in 1973, when Rôndonia was still a tribal domain, show virtually unbroken rain forest. The 1987 satellite photos, taken after just fifteen years of highway con￾struction and “development” by outsid￾ers, show more than 20 percent of the forest destroyed. The surviving Indians were being concentrated by FUNAI (Brazil’s national Indian foundation) into what would soon become mere is￾lands of forest in a ravaged landscape. It is irrelevant to quibble about whether tribals are noble, childlike, or innocent, or about the precise meaning of balance with nature, carrying capacity, or adapta￾tion, to recognize that for the past 200 years rapid environmental deterioration on an unprecedented global scale has fol￾lowed the wresting of control of vast ar￾eas of the world from tribal groups by resource-hungry industrial societies. DEPRIVATION AND DISCRIMINATION Contact with European culture has given them a knowledge of great wealth, opportunity and privilege, but only very limited avenues by which to acquire these things. Crocombe, 1968 Unwittingly, tribal peoples have had the burden of perpetual relative deprivation thrust upon them by acceptance—either by themselves or by the governments ad￾ministering them—of the standards of