Smart Cities:Definitions,Dimensions,Performance,and Initiatives 9 environment where any citizen can get any service anywhere and anytime through any device.The ubiquitous city is different from the virtual city because,while the virtual city reproduces urban elements by visualizing them within virtual space,the ubiquitous city is created by the inclusion of computer chips or sensors in urban elements (Lee et al.,2013). As stated previously,the component that is missing in previous terms is that of people.These are the protagonists of a smart city,who shape it through continu- ous interactions.For this reason,other terms have often been associated with the concept of the smart city.For example,creativity is recognized as a key driver of smart city,and thus education,learning,and knowledge have central roles in a smart city(Thuzar,2011).The notion of a smart city includes creating a climate suitable for an emerging creative class(Florida,2002,2005).The social infrastruc- ture,such as intellectual and social capital,is an indispensable endowment to smart cities as it allows"connecting people and creating relationships"(Alawadhi 1sn3nV et al.,2012).Smart people generate and benefit from the social capital of a city,so the smart city concept acquires the meaning of a mix of education/training, culture/arts,and business/commerce with hybrid social,cultural,and economic enterprises (Winters,2011). 6:10 Focusing on education,Winters(2011)clarifies that a smart city is a center of higher education,better-educated individuals,and skilled workforces.Smart cities act as magnets for creative people and workers,and this allows the creation of a virtuous circle making them smarter and smarter.Consequently,a smart city has multiple opportunities to exploit its human potential and promote a creative life (Partridge,2004).Glaeser and Berry(2006)showed that the most rapid urban growth rates have been achieved in cities where a high share of the educated labor force is available.The buzz concept of being clever,smart,skillful,creative,net- SuojoeIf leyueyS] worked,connected,and competitive becomes a key ingredient of knowledge- based urban development(Dirks et al.,2010). The term"knowledge city"has emerged from discussions about smart cities.It is a city that encourages the nurturing of knowledge(Edvinsson,2006,Baqir and Kathawala,2008,Yigitcanlar et al.,2008).There has been an explosion of literature about this term in the last several years.The development of a knowledge-based urban environments has recently been spurred by the advancement of new cloud 花o P technologies used for urban monitoring systems.In fact,as sensors collect terabytes of information,data need to be aggregated and processed (Hancke et al.2013). Mitton et al.(2012)describe the potential of integrating cloud and sensors in smart cities and present a new architecture that provides the capability of obtaining any type of dataacquired from differentsensing infrastructures.In some cases,these technologies subvert the top-down,corporate vision some offer as a smart city. Instead,the large-scale diffusion of new sensors in devices such as smartphones allows individuals to share data collectively and extract information instantly. Another category used by Nam and Pardo(2011)for clarifying the concept of the smart city is that of community.This perspective starts from the previous bottom-up knowledge scheme,and it aims at inspiring the sense of community among citizens.The importance of this factor emulates the concept of smart com- munities where members and institutions work in partnership to transform their environment(Berardi,2013a,2013b).This means that the community of a smart city needs to feel the desire to participate and promote a(smart)growth.The concept of smart growth was largely used in the 1990s within the framework of New Urbanism,as a community-driven reaction to worsening trends in trafficenvironment where any citizen can get any service anywhere and anytime through any device. The ubiquitous city is different from the virtual city because, while the virtual city reproduces urban elements by visualizing them within virtual space, the ubiquitous city is created by the inclusion of computer chips or sensors in urban elements (Lee et al., 2013). As stated previously, the component that is missing in previous terms is that of people. These are the protagonists of a smart city, who shape it through continu￾ous interactions. For this reason, other terms have often been associated with the concept of the smart city. For example, creativity is recognized as a key driver of smart city, and thus education, learning, and knowledge have central roles in a smart city (Thuzar, 2011). The notion of a smart city includes creating a climate suitable for an emerging creative class (Florida, 2002, 2005). The social infrastruc￾ture, such as intellectual and social capital, is an indispensable endowment to smart cities as it allows “connecting people and creating relationships” (Alawadhi et al., 2012). Smart people generate and benefit from the social capital of a city, so the smart city concept acquires the meaning of a mix of education/training, culture/arts, and business/commerce with hybrid social, cultural, and economic enterprises (Winters, 2011). Focusing on education, Winters (2011) clarifies that a smart city is a center of higher education, better-educated individuals, and skilled workforces. Smart cities act as magnets for creative people and workers, and this allows the creation of a virtuous circle making them smarter and smarter. Consequently, a smart city has multiple opportunities to exploit its human potential and promote a creative life (Partridge, 2004). Glaeser and Berry (2006) showed that the most rapid urban growth rates have been achieved in cities where a high share of the educated labor force is available. The buzz concept of being clever, smart, skillful, creative, net￾worked, connected, and competitive becomes a key ingredient of knowledge￾based urban development (Dirks et al., 2010). The term “knowledge city” has emerged from discussions about smart cities. It is a city that encourages the nurturing of knowledge (Edvinsson, 2006, Baqir and Kathawala, 2008, Yigitcanlar et al., 2008). There has been an explosion of literature about this term in the last several years. The development of a knowledge-based urban environments has recently been spurred by the advancement of new cloud technologies used for urban monitoring systems. In fact, as sensors collect terabytes of information, data need to be aggregated and processed (Hancke et al., 2013). Mitton et al. (2012) describe the potential of integrating cloud and sensors in smart cities and present a new architecture that provides the capability of obtaining any type of data acquired from different sensing infrastructures. In some cases, these technologies subvert the top-down, corporate vision some offer as a smart city. Instead, the large-scale diffusion of new sensors in devices such as smartphones allows individuals to share data collectively and extract information instantly. Another category used by Nam and Pardo (2011) for clarifying the concept of the smart city is that of community. This perspective starts from the previous bottom-up knowledge scheme, and it aims at inspiring the sense of community among citizens. The importance of this factor emulates the concept of smart com￾munities where members and institutions work in partnership to transform their environment (Berardi, 2013a, 2013b). This means that the community of a smart city needs to feel the desire to participate and promote a (smart) growth. The concept of smart growth was largely used in the 1990s within the framework of New Urbanism, as a community-driven reaction to worsening trends in traffic Smart Cities: Definitions, Dimensions, Performance, and Initiatives 9 Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017