8 Journal of Urban Technology Table 1:Continued Definition Source The use of Smart Computing technologies to make the critical infrastructure Washburn et al.(2010) components and services of a city-which include city administration, education,healthcare,public safety,real estate,transportation,and utilities-more intelligent,interconnected,and efficient. Smart Cities initiatives try to improve urban performance by using data, Marsal-Llacuna et al. information and information technologies(IT)to provide more efficient (2014) services to citizens,to monitor and optimize existing infrastructure,to increase collaboration among different economic actors,and to encourage innovative business models in both the private and public sectors. LIO isnany For corporations such as IBM,Cisco Systems,and Siemens AG,the techno- logical component is the key component to their conceptions of smart cities. Their approach has recently been critiqued by authors such as Adam Greenfield who argues in Against the Smart City(2013)that corporate-designed cities such A as Songdo (Korea),Masdar City (UAE),or PlanIT Valley (Portugal)eschew k:101 actual knowledge about how cities function and represent "empty"spaces that disregard the value of complexity,unplanned scenarios,and the mixed uses of urban spaces.There are authors,however,who have shown that technology [AISIAlun could be used in cities to empower citizens by adapting those technologies to their needs rather than adapting their lives to technological exigencies(Cugurullo, 2013,Kitchin,2014,Vanolo,2014). There are terms analogous to "smart cities"that add to the cacophony of terms relating to this phenomenon.As already stated,possible confusion uoloelf eyueyS] related to the technology perspective of a smart city comes from the top-down and company-driven actions taken for creating a smart city.However,it also comes from the confusion with other similar terms,such as digital,intelligent, virtual,or ubiquitous city.These terms refer to more specific and less inclusive levels of a city,so that the concepts of smart cities often include them(Caragliu et al.,2011;Deakin and Al Waer,2011;Townsend,2013).For example a digital city refers to"a connected community that combines broadband communications 花o P infrastructure to meet the needs of governments,citizens,and businesses" (Ishida,2002).The final goal of a digital city is to create an environment for infor- mation sharing,collaboration,interoperability,and seamless experiences anywhere in the city. The notion of the"intelligent city"emerges at the crossing of the knowledge society with the digital city(Yovanof and Hazapis,2009).According to Komninos et al.(2013),intelligent cities make conscious efforts to use information technology to transform life and work.The label intelligent implies the ability to support learning,technological development,and innovation in cities;in this sense, every digital city is not necessarily intelligent,but every intelligent city has digital components,although the "people"component is still not included in an intelligent city,as it is in a smart city (Woods,2013).In a "virtual city,"the city becomes a hybrid concept that consists of a reality,with its physical entities and real inhabitants,and a parallel virtual city of counterparts,a cyberspace.A "ubiquitous city"is an extension of the digital city concept in terms of wide acces- sibility.It makes the ubiquitous computing available to the urban elements every- where(Greenfield,2006;Townsend,2013).Its characteristic is the creation of anFor corporations such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Siemens AG, the techno￾logical component is the key component to their conceptions of smart cities. Their approach has recently been critiqued by authors such as Adam Greenfield who argues in Against the Smart City (2013) that corporate-designed cities such as Songdo (Korea), Masdar City (UAE), or PlanIT Valley (Portugal) eschew actual knowledge about how cities function and represent “empty” spaces that disregard the value of complexity, unplanned scenarios, and the mixed uses of urban spaces. There are authors, however, who have shown that technology could be used in cities to empower citizens by adapting those technologies to their needs rather than adapting their lives to technological exigencies (Cugurullo, 2013, Kitchin, 2014, Vanolo, 2014). There are terms analogous to “smart cities” that add to the cacophony of terms relating to this phenomenon. As already stated, possible confusion related to the technology perspective of a smart city comes from the top-down and company-driven actions taken for creating a smart city. However, it also comes from the confusion with other similar terms, such as digital, intelligent, virtual, or ubiquitous city. These terms refer to more specific and less inclusive levels of a city, so that the concepts of smart cities often include them (Caragliu et al., 2011; Deakin and Al Waer, 2011; Townsend, 2013). For example a digital city refers to “a connected community that combines broadband communications infrastructure to meet the needs of governments, citizens, and businesses” (Ishida, 2002). The final goal of a digital city is to create an environment for infor￾mation sharing, collaboration, interoperability, and seamless experiences anywhere in the city. The notion of the “intelligent city” emerges at the crossing of the knowledge society with the digital city (Yovanof and Hazapis, 2009). According to Komninos et al. (2013), intelligent cities make conscious efforts to use information technology to transform life and work. The label intelligent implies the ability to support learning, technological development, and innovation in cities; in this sense, every digital city is not necessarily intelligent, but every intelligent city has digital components, although the “people” component is still not included in an intelligent city, as it is in a smart city (Woods, 2013). In a “virtual city,” the city becomes a hybrid concept that consists of a reality, with its physical entities and real inhabitants, and a parallel virtual city of counterparts, a cyberspace. A “ubiquitous city” is an extension of the digital city concept in terms of wide acces￾sibility. It makes the ubiquitous computing available to the urban elements every￾where (Greenfield, 2006; Townsend, 2013). Its characteristic is the creation of an Table 1: Continued Definition Source The use of Smart Computing technologies to make the critical infrastructure components and services of a city—which include city administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, transportation, and utilities—more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient. Washburn et al. (2010) Smart Cities initiatives try to improve urban performance by using data, information and information technologies (IT) to provide more efficient services to citizens, to monitor and optimize existing infrastructure, to increase collaboration among different economic actors, and to encourage innovative business models in both the private and public sectors. Marsal-Llacuna et al. (2014) 8 Journal of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017