10 Journal of Urban Technology congestion,school overcrowding,air pollution,loss of open space,effacement of valued historic places,and skyrocketing public facility costs(Eger,2009).These goals are still among the reasons smart cities are attractive. Perhaps a reason that there is no general agreement about the term"smart cities"is that the term has been applied to two different kinds of"domains."It has,on the one hand,been applied to "hard"domains such as,buildings, energy grids,natural resources,water management,waste management,mobility, and logistics(Neirotti et al,2014),where ICT can play a decisive role in the func- tions of the systems.On the other hand,the term has also been applied to "soft domains"such as,education,culture,policy innovations,social inclusion,and government,where the application of ICT are not usually decisive. 102 Dimensions of a Smart City n3nV Dirks and Keeling(2009)stress the importance of the organic integration of a city's 8 various systems(transportation,energy,education,health care,buildings,physical infrastructure,food,water,and public safety)in creating a smart city.Researchers K6:100 who support this integrated view of a smart city often underline that in a dense environment,like that of cities,no system operates in isolation.Kanter and Litow (2009)stress this aspect in their Manifesto for Smarter Cities,where they affirm that infusing intelligence into each subsystem of a city,one by one,is insufficient to create a smart city,as this should be treated as an organic whole.However,many researchers,with the intent of clarifying what constitutes a smart city have separated this concept into many features and dimensions,justifying this decision with the complexity of managing the smart city concept in a holistic way. Komninos(2002,2011)in his attempt to delineate the features of an intelligent city,indicated that this has four possible dimensions(attention should be paid to the less inclusive reference to "intelligent"instead of "smart"city).The first dimension concerns the application of a wide range of electronic and digital technologies to create a cyber,digital,wired,informational or knowledge-based city;the second is the use of information technology to transform life and work;the third is to embed ICT in the city infrastructure;the fourth is to bring ICT and 花o P people together to enhance innovation,learning,and knowledge. Giffinger et al.(2007)identified four components of a smart city:industry, education,participation,and technical infrastructure.This list has since been expanded in a recent project conducted by the Centre of Regional Science at the Vienna University of Technology which has identified six main components(Gif- finger and Gudrun,2010).These components are a smart economy,smart mobility, a smart environment,smart people,smart living,and smart governance.These writers rely on the traditional and neoclassical theories of urban growth and development:regional competitiveness,transport and ICT economics,natural resources,human and social capital,quality of life,and participation of society members.Particularly interesting in the previous list of components of a smart city is the inclusion of the "quality of life.This component emphasizes the defi- nition of a smart city as a city that increases the life quality of its citizens(Giffinger et al.,2007).However,many researchers argue that quality of life may not rep- resent a separate dimension of a smart city,as all the actions taken in the other areas should have the objective of raising the quality of life,so that this represents the basic component (Shapiro,2006).congestion, school overcrowding, air pollution, loss of open space, effacement of valued historic places, and skyrocketing public facility costs (Eger, 2009). These goals are still among the reasons smart cities are attractive. Perhaps a reason that there is no general agreement about the term “smart cities” is that the term has been applied to two different kinds of “domains.” It has, on the one hand, been applied to “hard” domains such as, buildings, energy grids, natural resources, water management, waste management, mobility, and logistics (Neirotti et al, 2014), where ICT can play a decisive role in the func￾tions of the systems. On the other hand, the term has also been applied to “soft domains” such as, education, culture, policy innovations, social inclusion, and government, where the application of ICT are not usually decisive. Dimensions of a Smart City Dirks and Keeling (2009) stress the importance of the organic integration of a city’s various systems (transportation, energy, education, health care, buildings, physical infrastructure, food, water, and public safety) in creating a smart city. Researchers who support this integrated view of a smart city often underline that in a dense environment, like that of cities, no system operates in isolation. Kanter and Litow (2009) stress this aspect in their Manifesto for Smarter Cities, where they affirm that infusing intelligence into each subsystem of a city, one by one, is insufficient to create a smart city, as this should be treated as an organic whole. However, many researchers, with the intent of clarifying what constitutes a smart city have separated this concept into many features and dimensions, justifying this decision with the complexity of managing the smart city concept in a holistic way. Komninos (2002, 2011) in his attempt to delineate the features of an intelligent city, indicated that this has four possible dimensions (attention should be paid to the less inclusive reference to “intelligent” instead of “smart” city). The first dimension concerns the application of a wide range of electronic and digital technologies to create a cyber, digital, wired, informational or knowledge-based city; the second is the use of information technology to transform life and work; the third is to embed ICT in the city infrastructure; the fourth is to bring ICT and people together to enhance innovation, learning, and knowledge. Giffinger et al. (2007) identified four components of a smart city: industry, education, participation, and technical infrastructure. This list has since been expanded in a recent project conducted by the Centre of Regional Science at the Vienna University of Technology which has identified six main components (Gif- finger and Gudrun, 2010). These components are a smart economy, smart mobility, a smart environment, smart people, smart living, and smart governance. These writers rely on the traditional and neoclassical theories of urban growth and development: regional competitiveness, transport and ICT economics, natural resources, human and social capital, quality of life, and participation of society members. Particularly interesting in the previous list of components of a smart city is the inclusion of the “quality of life.” This component emphasizes the defi- nition of a smart city as a city that increases the life quality of its citizens (Giffinger et al., 2007). However, many researchers argue that quality of life may not rep￾resent a separate dimension of a smart city, as all the actions taken in the other areas should have the objective of raising the quality of life, so that this represents the basic component (Shapiro, 2006). 10 Journal of Urban Technology Downloaded by [Shanghai Jiaotong University] at 01:47 22 August 2017