9.1 Work Attitudes 339 With this wide array of desirable outcomes associated with job satisfaction.it is not surprising that employers would like to maintain or improve the satisfaction of their employees.There have been some estimates that the actual "cost"of dissatisfaction can rise to 1.5 times the salary of an unhappy and productive individual who leaves an organization (Koeppel.2004).But Schneider and his colleagues(Schneider.Hanges. Smith.Salvaggio,2003)question the causal direction of this assumption.They were able to complete an analysis that examined which was the cart and which the horse:Did employee satisfaction cause profitability or did company success cause satisfaction? Interestingly,it appears that company success results in increased overall job satisfaction (a surprise)and increased satisfaction with job security(not as much ofa surprise).Based on their results,they developed a model that shows that job satisfaction follows company profitability rather than drives it.Their findings indicate that if companies wish to maintain or increase employee morale,money might be best invested in high-performance work practices,such as pay for performance,pay for skill acquisition,training,and performance management (Huselid,1995;Morrison,Cordery,Girardi,Payne,2005). rather than simply in increased pay or improved working conditions.What is clear from these results is that we can no longer take for granted the direction of the satisfaction- performance relationship. Taking into consideration all of the possible precursors of job satisfaction with all of the possible consequences-and all of the enthusiastic researchers-you can understand why more than 10,000 studies of job satisfaction have been produced.Figure 9.1 provides a graphic illustration of the presumed antecedents,correlates,and consequences of job satis- faction.We will return to the issues of antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction in subsequent modules. Antecedeats Cor由tes Consequences b Creup and Organizational Organizatonal Motivation and Characterstia Characteristic Gitizenship Vanety Gruc goal aroual 定i5 GBtoh459F8641 Work and Task signecance Cett冷r non-work Autonomy cn体vih perceived stess Feedback Pt流oatit eement oo heah脑 bn边ns 伦n地电酒 symptom 3时的以Amm下n Cegnitioms Organcaton s元 Job involvement 0u单 mgntion Role States Leader Relations Life satisfacton 4丝nmatng itruch里 p Role confirt ole ambguity Leadw toniderabon Legom producton tmohase do tewar时tbra Lrade punnhment betuvor 4memc地0ny Job Satigfaction FIGURE9.1 Classification of Presumed Antecedents,Comelates,and Consequences of Job Satisfaction Sewe Kndi A 1.Mdee-Rran.F.M.Sdriesheim.CA.&CananKP2002)Asvesng the cmtruct validey of the Job Descriptive index A mew and meta-anaysns Jouma fAped Pycholgy.87.14-32.p 202002 by the Amencan Pchelogcal Associaon Reprinted by pemmiion of the publisher