TRIBUTE AND TRADE 26 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS 27 Theoretical basis of tribute.This early Chinese development of ritual it was the duty of the minister to be loyal,of the son to be filial,and of each procedure in inter-state relations formed part of the classical tradition person in society to preserve the social order by acting as demanded by after the imperial unification of 2 B.C.But it could not be fully applied etiquette,so it was particularly the duty of the ruler,as the one man who outside the Chinese world,and hence arose the early distinction between represented his people before Heaven,to set the model for the rest of man- kind.There was felt to be a certain virtue or power (te)in right conduct Chinese and barbarian. From their age-long contact with the barbarians roundabout,including such that it could move others.The virtuous ruler gained prestige and in- both the nomads of the northern steppe and the aborigines of the south, fluence over his people merely by exhibiting his virtue.In this way Con- the Chinese developed one major belief:that their superiority was not one fucius and his followers had defined an ethical basis for the exercise of of mere material power but of culture.Such things as the Chinese written political authority over all mankind,including the barbarians.2 language and the Confucian code of conduct were visible signs of this cul- By a logical expansion of this theory the emperor's virtuous action was ture.So great was their virtue,so overwhelming the achievements of the believed to attract irresistibly the barbarians who were outside the pale Middle Kingdom in handicrafts and letters and the art of living,that no of Chinese civilization proper."The kings of former times cultivated their barbarian could long resist them.Gradually but invariably the barbarian own refinement and virtue in order to subdue persons at a distance,where- in settled contact with China tended to become Chinese.By this most upon the barbarians (of the east and north)came to Court to have audi- flattering act he reinforced the Chinese conviction of superiority.On their ence"-so reads an official statement of the Ming period about 1530.3 A side the inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom,themselves in large part century and a half later the first Manchu edition of the Collected Statutes descendants of barbarians,stood always ready to judge a man by a cul- records that "When our Dynasty first arose,its awe-inspiring virtue (te) tural rather than by a racial or national standard.After centuries as the gradually spread and became established.Wherever its name and influence center of eastern Asia,the Chinese developed what may be called,by anal- reached,there were none who did not come to Court." ogy to nationalism,a spirit of "culturalism."Those who did not follow Thus the relationship between the emperor and the barbarians came to the Chinese way were considered inferior and therefore dangerous when symbolize the actual historical relationship between China as the center of strong.This view was supported by (and emanated from)the entire Con- culture and the rude tribes roundabout.This relationship was clearly recog- nized and formed the theoretical basis for the tributary system.The first fucian cosmology. Another ancient idea which supported this culturalism was the concept tenet of this theory was that the uncultivated alien,however crass and of the power of example.Confucianism held that right conduct for all per- stupid,could not but appreciate the superiority of Chinese culture.Natu- sons consisted in the performance of the proper rites and ceremonies and the rally he would seek to "come and be transformed"(lai-/a),so as to parti- preservation of the proper social relationships according to status.Just as cipate in its benefits.To do this it was chiefly essential that he should recognize the unique position of the Son of Heaven,the One Man who to types,they ineluded )envoysto conferences,)envoys sent to maintain alliances,3)envoy se to tra nit inguirics-as on customary occasions,or when a ruler ascended the throne,or to main- constituted the apex of the Chinese scheme of things.This conformed with tain friendly relations or the like.)envoys sent to pay respects,bya ceremony either to return the fundamental dogma that China was the center of the human scene and homage or to render thanks,5)envoys sent to make ouncements,including the announcement of disorde,disaster,mournin atural calamity or defest,6)envoys sent toofercondefo mour that the emperor exercised the mandate of Heaven to rule all mankind, ing,burial,natural calamity or defeat,and finally,7)envoys to marriages.There were also customary Chinese and barbarian alike.It also accorded with the basic assumption of procedures concering guesis or attaches and the followers of envoys such as bodyguards,interpreters, and servants. Confucian ethics that the organization of society is naturally hierarchic The ceremonies for the reception af envoys were carefully detailed in the I-i and other works. rather than egalitarian,that all superiors should be models for their in- while the actual practice was recorded in the CA'su-cA'is and Tso-ckman,in which refe aces correspond to the regulntions in the.The ceremonial for the dispatch of envoys included the following pro. feriors,and that the family of nations is just what the name implies-an cedures:1)When the envoy arrived at the frontier of the other country,he announced his arrival and was then welcomed at the frontier and exch ed gifts and extensive civilities with the officials appointed organized group dominated by the Chinese ruler as its patriarch.5 In this to reccive him.both there and at the capital.2)The envoy went to his lodgings.3)On the next day family,barbarians were uncouth country cousins. he had audience,being treated as the guest of honor.4)He presented the aluable obfects and gifts.5)He might present an official letter.6)He was entertained at a big ofcial banquet,and there The relationship which thus inhered between the outer barbarian and the were various other ceremonies which might be used.Other rules governed the refusal of envoys.and their privileges,among which were immunity from attack,a sort of extra-territoriality freeing them emperor was by no means unilateral and indeed could hardly exist except from iocal law,and exemption from the customs duties.According to the ancient records there were on a reciprocal basis.It was the function of the emperor to be compassionate ltyrepresentatives of various kinds,and officials in charge of the several asects of foreimn relations.Nume ment ot depules dalombe oune and generous.His "tender cherishing of men from afar"(huai-jou yuan- jen)is one of the cliches in all documents on foreign relations.The humble form or another.26 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS Theoretical basis of tribute. This early Chinese development of ritual procedure in inter-state relations formed part of the classical tradition after the imperial unification of 22I B.C. But it could not be fully applied outside the Chinese world, and hence arose the early distinction between Chinese and barbarian. From their age-long contact with the barbarians roundabout, including both the nomads of the northern steppe and the aborigines of the south, the Chinese developed one major belief: that their superiority was not one of mere material power but of culture. Such things as the Chinese written language and the Confucian code of conduct were visible signs of this cul￾ture. So great was their virtue, so overwhelming the achievements of the Middle Kingdom in handicrafts and letters and the art of living, that no barbarian could long resist them. Gradually but invariably the barbarian in settled contact with China tended to become Chinese. By this most flattering act he reinforced the Chinese conviction of superiority. On their side the inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom, themselves in large part descendants of barbarians, stood always ready to judge a man by a cul￾tural rather than by a racial or national standard. After centuries as the center of eastern Asia, the Chinese developed what may be called, by anal￾ogy to nationalism, a spirit of "culturalism."· Those who did not follow the Chinese way were considered inferior and therefore dangerous when strong. This view was supported by (and emanated from) the entire Con￾fucian cosmology. Another ancient idea which supported this culturalism was the concept of the power of example. Confucianism held that right conduct for all per￾sons consisted in the performance of the proper rites and ceremonies and the preservation of the proper social relationships according to status. Just as to types, they included I) envoys to conferences, 2) envoys sent to maintain alliances, 3) envoys sent to transmit inquiries - as on customary occasions, or when a ruler ascended the throne, or to main￾tain friendly relations or the like, 4) envoys sent to pay respects, by a ceremony either to return homage or to render thanks, 5) envoys sent to make announcements, including the announcement of disorder, disaster, mourning, natural calamity or defeat, 6) envoys sent to offer condolence for mourn￾ing, burial, natural calamity or defeat, and finally, 7) envoys to marriages. There were also customary procedures concerning guests or attaches and the followers of envoys such as bodyguards, interpreters, and servants. The ceremonies for the reception of envoys were carefully detailed in the I-Ii and other works, While the actual practice was recorded in the Ch'unwch'iu and Tso-chuan, in which references correspond to the regulations in the I-Ii. The ceremonial for the dispatch of envoys included the following pro￾cedures: I) When the envoy arrived at the frontier of the other country, he announced his arrival and was then welcomed at the frontier and exchanged gifts and extensive civilities with the officials appointed to receive him, both there and at the capital. 2) The envoy went to his lodgings. 3) On the next day he had audience, being treated as the guest of honor. 4) He presented the valuable objects and gifts. 5) He might present an official letter. 6) He was entertained at a big official banquet, and there were various other ceremonies which might be used. Other rules governed the refusal of envoys, and their privileges, among which were immunity from attack, a sort of extra-territoriality freeing them from local law, and exemption from the customs duties. According to the ancient records there were also military representatives of various kinds, and officials in charge of the several aspects of foreign relations. Numerous regulations governed leagues and alliances; and customs duties, passports, settle￾ment of disputes, and international law concerning war and neutrality, were all to be found in one form or another.' TRIBUTE AND TRADE 27 it was the duty of the minister to be loyal, of the son to be filial, and of each person in society to preserve the social order by acting as demanded by etiquette, so it was particularly the duty of the ruler, as the one man who represented his people before Heaven, to set the model for the rest of man￾kind. There was felt to be a certain virtue or power (te) in right conduct such that it could move others. The virtuous ruler gained prestige and in￾fluence over his people merely by exhibiting his virtue. In this way Con￾fucius and his followers had defined an ethical basis for the exercise of political authority over all mankind, including the barbarians.2 By a logical expansion of this theory the emperor's virtuous action was believed to attract irresistibly the barbarians who were outside the pale of Chinese civilization proper. "The kings of former times cultivated their own refinement and virtue in order to subdue persons at a distance where￾upon the barbarians (of the east and north) came to Court to ha~e audi￾ence" - so reads an official statement of the Ming period about 1530.3 A century and a half later the first Manchu edition of the Collected Statutes records that "When our Dynasty first arose, its awe-inspiring virtue (te) gradually spread and became established. Wherever its name and influence reached, there were none who did not come to Court." 4 Thus the relationship between the emperor and the barbarians came to symbolize the actual historical relationship between China as the center of c~lture and the rude tribes roundabout. This relationship was clearly recog￾mzed and formed the theoretical basis for the tributary system. The first tenet of this theory was that the uncultivated alien, however crass and stupid, could not but appreciate the superiority of Chinese culture. Natu￾r~lly h~ w~uld seek to "come and be transformed" (lai-hua) , so as to parti￾CIpate III Its benefits. To do this it was chiefly essential that he should recog?ize the unique position of the Son of Heaven, the One Man who constItuted the apex of the Chinese scheme of things. This conformed with the fundamental dogma that China was the center of the human scene and that the emperor exercised the mandate of Heaven to rule all mankind Chinese and barbarian alike. It also accorded with the basic assumption of Confucian ethics that the organization of society is naturally hierarchic rather than egalitarian, that all superiors should be models for their in￾feriors, and that the family of nations is just what the name implies - an organized group dominated by the Chinese ruler as its patriarch.5 In this family, barbarians were uncouth country cousins. The relationship which thus inhered between the outer barbarian and the emperor was by no means unilateral and indeed could hardly exist except on a reciprocal basis. It was the function of the emperor to be compassionate ~nd generous. His "tender cherishing of men from afar" (huai-jou yuan￾Jen) is one of the cliches in all documents on foreign relations. The humble