28 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS TRIBUTE AND TRADE 29 submission of the foreigner came in direct response to the imperial benevo- lence,which was itself a sign of the potent imperial virtue. daily amounts of silver,rice,or fodder were paid from the imperial treasury Finally,it was unavoidable that these reciprocal relations of compassion- for the maintenance of men and animals.When an envoy returned to the ate benevolence and humble submission should be carried out in ritual frontier he was escorted by a ceremonial usher.Both going and coming he form,without which they could hardly be said to exist.Tribute became one was accompanied by troops who combined protection with surveillance. of the rites of the court,a part of the ceremonial of government.In fact, In the court ceremonies there was an exchange of courtesies.The tribute the presentation of tribute was not a rite limited to barbarians.Under the mission was entertained at banquets,not once but several times,and Manchus tribute (g)was also received by the court at Peking from the feasted also in the presence of the emperor,from whom they might receive provinces of China proper.Its presentation by the barbarians was a sign of tea or even delicacies of the table.On their part the tributary envoys per- their admission to the civilization of the Middle Kingdom-a boon and a formed the kotow.European participants were inclined to feel that this privilege,not an ignominious ordeal.In this way the formalities of the ceremony more than made up for the imperial benevolence which filtered tributary system were a mechanism by which formerly barbarous regions down to them through the sticky hands of their official supervisors.The outside the empire were given their place in the all-embracing Sino-centric kotow in principle is a knocking of the head upon the ground,in itself an cosmos. act of surrender,but the full kotow as performed at court was a good deal Tribute as ritual.This will appear most plainly from an analysis of the more.It consisted of three separate kneelings,each kneeling accompanied rules and regulations of the tribute system as published in the various by three separate prostrations,and the whole performed at the strident editions of the Collected Statutes of the Ch'ing.s First of all the tributary command of an usher--“Kneel!'",“Fall prostratel'”,“Rise to your knees!'”, ruler who tendered his submission was incorporated into the charmed "Fall prostrate!",and so on.An envoy went through this calisthenic cere- circle of the Chinese state by several forms.An imperial patent of appoint- mony not once but many times,since it was the chief means by which he ment was bestowed upon him-a document which recognized his status as repaid the imperial board and lodging,and his official supervisors were a tributary.A noble rank was also conferred upon him,sometimes,as with charged to see that he did it before the emperor with accomplished ease. the Mongol princes,a relatively high rank in comparison with those of It was the rite of all others which left no doubt,least of all in the mind of Chinese subjects.An imperial seal was also granted him,to be used in the the performer,as to who was the superior and who the inferior in status. signing of his tributary memorials.Such memorials and other communica- Yet it should not be forgotten by egalitarian Westerners (who invari- tions were to be dated by the Chinese dynastic reign-title-that is,the ably did forget)that the kotow was merely a part of the universal order Chinese calendar was extended over the tributary state.A tributary envoy of Confucian ceremony which symbolized all the relationships of life.The who died within the Middle Kingdom received unusual Confucian honors: emperor performed the kotow to Heaven and to his parents,the highest a funeral essay was recited and burned at his grave,where sacrificial offer- officials of the empire performed it to the emperor,and friends or dignitaries ings were made,and later a stone was placed above it with an imperial might even perform it mutually to each other.From a tribute envoy it inscription.Even for the burial of an attendant of the mission,if he died was,therefore,no more than good manners. at the capital,a wooden coffin and red satin were to be supplied. The tribute itself was no gain to the imperial court.It was supposed to The tribute missions themselves were carefully limited in size but,within consist of native produce,a symbolic offering of the fruits of the tributary the limit,were well provided for.The officers and servants of a mission country."Things that are not locally produced are not to be presented." were not to exceed one hundred men,of whom only twenty might go to Rare and strange items might be included,like the auspicious giraffes the capital while the rest remained at the border under the care and on the which were brought from Africa in the early Ming period as unicorns provision of the local authorities.A mission coming by sea should not con- (ch'i-lin),omens of good fortune.8 But there was little benefit to the im- sist of more than three ships,of one hundred men each.On the way to the perial treasury in anything that a tribute mission might bring.The value capital the mission received its keep and transportation,the latter being of the tribute objects was certainly balanced,if not outweighed,by the im- supplied by the men,horses,boats and carts of the imperial post (the perial gifts to the various members of the mission and to the vassal ruler. service of transport and communication maintained in each province for The expense of entertaining a mission was not inconsiderable,but the imperial use).At the capital the mission was lodged at the official Resi- court was repaid in kudos.Tribute was ordinarily presented at the time of dence for Tributary Envoys-a collection of hostelries where statutory a great audience at the New Year,when the bureaucracy of all the empire paid reverence to the Son of Heaven and when the dramatic submission of28 CHINA'S UNPREPAREDNESS submission of the foreigner came in direct response to the imperial benevo￾lence, which was itself a sign of the potent imperial virtue. Finally, it was unavoidable that these reciprocal relations of compassion￾ate benevolence and humble submission should be carried out in ritual form, without which they could hardly be said to exist. Tribute became one of the rites of the court, a part of the ceremonial of government. In fact, the presentation of tribute was not a rite limited to barbarians. Under the Manchus tribute (kung) was also received by the court at Peking from the provinces of China proper. Its presentation by the barbarians was a sign of their admission to the civilization of the Middle Kingdom - a boon and a privilege, not an ignominious ordeal. In this way the formalities of the tributary system were a mechanism by which formerly barbarous regions outside the empire were given their place in the all-embracing Sino-centric cosmos. Tribute as ritual. This will appear most plainly from an analysis of the rules and regulations of the tribute system as published in the various editions of the Collected Statutes of the Ch'ing.6 First of all the tributary ruler who tendered his submission was incorporated into the charmed circle of the Chinese state by several forms. An imperial patent of appoint￾ment was bestowed upon him - a document which recognized his status as a tributary. A noble rank was also conferred upon him, sometimes, as with the Mongol princes, a relatively high rank in comparison with those of Chinese subjects. An imperial seal was also granted him, to be used in the signing of his tributary memorials. Such memorials and other communica￾tions were to be dated by the Chinese dynastic reign-title - that is, the Chinese calendar was extended over the tributary state. A tributary envoy who died within the Middle Kingdom received unusual Confucian honors: a funeral essay was recited and burned at his grave, where sacrificial offer￾ings were made, and later a stone was placed above it with an imperial inscription. Even for the burial of an attendant of the mission, if he died at the capital, a wooden coffin and red satin were to be supplied. The tribute missions themselves were carefully limited in size but, within the limit, were well provided for. The officers and servants of a mission were not to exceed one hundred men, of whom only twenty might go to the capital while the rest remained at the border under the care and on the provision of the local authorities. A mission coming by sea should not con￾sist of more than three ships, of one hundred men each. On the way to the capital the mission received its keep and transportation, the latter being supplied by the men, horses, boats and carts of the imperial post (the service of transport and communication maintained in each province for imperial use). At the capital the mission was lodged at the official Resi￾dence for Tributary Envoys - a collection of hostelries where statutory ,i£4££ TRIBUTE AND TRADE 29 daily amounts of silver, rice, or fodd~r were paid from the imperial treasury for the maintenance of men and ammals. When an envoy returned to the frontier he was escorted by a ceremonial usher. Both going and coming he was accompanied by troops who combined protection with ~urveillanc~. In the court ceremonies there was an exchange of courtesies. The tnbute mission was entertained at banquets, not once but several .times, a~d feasted also in the presence of the emperor, from whom they mIght receIve tea or even delicacies of the table. On their part the tributary envoys per￾formed the kotow. European participants were inclined to feel that this ceremony more than made up for the imperial benevolence which filtered down to them through the sticky hands of their official supervisors. The kotow in principle is a knocking of the head upon the ground, in itself an act of surrender but the full kotow as performed at court was a good deal more. It consist~d of three separate kneelings, each kneeling accompanied by three separate prostrations, and the whole performed at the strident command of an usher-"Kneel! ", "Fall prostrate! ", "Rise to your knees! ", "Fall prostrate! '0', and so on. An envoy went through this calisthenic. cere￾mony not once but many times, since it was the chief means by whIch he repaid the imperial board and lodging, and his o£?cial super~isors were charged to see that he did it before the emperor wlth acco:uphshed. ease. It was the rite of all others which left no doubt, least of all III the mmd of the performer, as to who was the superior and who the inferior in st~tus .. Yet it should not be forgotten by egalitarian Westerners (who mvan￾ably did forget) that the kotow was merely a part of. the ~nivers~l order of Confucian ceremony which symbolized all the relatIOnshIps of Me. The emperor performed the kotow to Heaven and to his p~rents, th~ h.igh~st officials of the empire performed it to the emperor, and fnends or dlgmtanes might even perform it mutually to each other. From a tribute envoy it was, therefore, no more than good manners. The tribute itself was no gain to the imperial court. It was supposed to consist of native produce, a symbolic offering of the fruits of the tribut~;; country. "Things that are not locally produced .are not to be. ~resen~ed. Rare and strange items might be included, lIke the ausplcIOUS gIraffes which were brought from Africa in the early Ming period as unicorns (ch'i-lin), omens of good fortune. 8 ~ut ther~ ,;as lit.tle ben.eM to the im￾perial treasury in anything that a tnbute mISSIOn mlght .brmg. The va.lue of the tribute objects was certainly balanced, if not outweIghed, by the lm￾perial gifts to the various members of the mission ~nd t~ the vassal ruler. The expense of entertaining a mission was not Inconslderable, b~t the court was repaid in kudos. Tribute was ordinarily presented at the tIme .of a great audience at the New Year, when the bureaucracy o.f all th~ e~pIre paid reverence to the Son of Heaven and when the dramatrc submISSIon of