Economic Expansion and Security in Pre-WWI Europe 205 There is a deep and widespread sense of injustice and discontent throughout all ranks and ratings of the Navy.This discontent...is rendered more dangerous by every successful strike for higher wages which takes place on shore.It is ren- dered more legitimate by the social legislation upon which the Parliament is en- gaged....It is just this seamen class which was caught and bound to such a long contract so young,who cannot escape from it without severe punishment,and who are the best educated,among whom a serious explosion might occur....We have had great mutinies in the past in the British Navy,and we ought not to con- tinue to bear the responsibility of refusing all redress to grievances so obvious and so harsh.28 Nor did conscription insulate France and Germany from similar problems.29 In France,leftist pressures to ease the burdens of military service forced the govern- ment to progressively shorten the length of active duty from five years in the late 1880s to two years by 1905.30 The army also experienced a sharp rise in insubordina- tion,soldier riots,and desertion.In 1902,some 5,991 men were listed as missing, growing to 13,000 by 1912.In all,some 76,723 citizens shirked their military obliga- tions in the ten years prior to 1912,the equivalent of two army corps.31 Legal evasion was rampant.To counter the growing shortage,the government ordered conscription boards after 1905 to take recruits who would have been previously rejected as unfit- some 35,000 men in 1907 alone.32 Rising civilian wages also led many officers to resign or lose interest in their profession.According to France Militaire in 1912, "[Army]pay...does not compare,the statistics prove it,with the gains made by workers or most civil servants over the past ten years....As a consequence,the military ideal is devalued,submerged by a sort of bourgeois ideal,tied to the hard facts of everyday life."3 Likewise,eroding pay and working conditions caused a growing exodus of noncommissioned officers (NCOs).By 1913,the army was short some 6,000 career sergeants and 15,000 reenlisted corporals,and those that remained were second rate.The most qualified had entered the civilian economy.34 A 1912 government inquiry concluded that Those who believe themselves poorly treated and who can find a civilian job leave the army,these are generally the most intelligent.What is left are mediocre instructors who can do absolutely nothing else....The lower cadres lose little by little their best elements,their elite men,and slowly but surely the corps of NCOs will become what it was 20 years ago,that is,it will contain only NCOs of 28.British Admiralty 1912,4-5. 29.Remember that,in a time of shorter life expectancies,conscription imposed a considerable burden by taking men away from their civilian lives for up to four years.Stevenson 1996,6.Rates of pay were so poor in the continental armies that soldiers had to supplement their pay with external sources of income.A French private earned approximately I percent of the average civilian wage,a German private 8 percent, and a Russian private 7 percent.Hobson 1993,490-91. 30.On the translation of rising opportunity costs into political activity.see footnote 6. 31.Porch1981,11L. 32.Ibid.202-203. 33.Cited in ibid.,90. 34.bid,197.There is a deep and widespread sense of injustice and discontent throughout all ranks and ratings of the Navy. This discontent . . . is rendered more dangerous by every successful strike for higher wages which takes place on shore. It is ren￾dered more legitimate by the social legislation upon which the Parliament is en￾gaged. . . . It is just this seamen class which was caught and bound to such a long contract so young, who cannot escape from it without severe punishment, and who are the best educated, among whom a serious explosion might occur. . . . We have had great mutinies in the past in the British Navy, and we ought not to con￾tinue to bear the responsibility of refusing all redress to grievances so obvious and so harsh.28 Nor did conscription insulate France and Germany from similar problems.29 In France, leftist pressures to ease the burdens of military service forced the govern￾ment to progressively shorten the length of active duty from Ž ve years in the late 1880sto two years by 1905.30 The army also experienced a sharp rise in insubordina￾tion, soldier riots, and desertion. In 1902, some 5,991 men were listed as missing, growing to 13,000 by 1912.In all,some 76,723 citizensshirked their military obliga￾tionsin the ten years prior to 1912, the equivalent of two army corps.31 Legal evasion was rampant. To counter the growing shortage, the government ordered conscription boards after 1905 to take recruits who would have been previously rejected as unŽ t— some 35,000 men in 1907 alone.32 Rising civilian wages also led many officers to resign or lose interest in their profession. According to France Militaire in 1912, ‘‘[Army] pay . . . does not compare, the statistics prove it, with the gains made by workers or most civil servants over the past ten years. . . . As a consequence, the military ideal is devalued, submerged by a sort of bourgeois ideal, tied to the hard facts of everyday life.’’ 33 Likewise, eroding pay and working conditions caused a growing exodus of noncommissioned officers (NCOs). By 1913, the army was short some 6,000 careersergeants and 15,000 reenlisted corporals, and those that remained were second rate. The most qualiŽ ed had entered the civilian economy.34 A 1912 government inquiry concluded that Those who believe themselves poorly treated and who can Ž nd a civilian job leave the army, these are generally the most intelligent.What is left are mediocre instructors who can do absolutely nothing else. . . . The lower cadres lose little by little their best elements, their elite men, and slowly but surely the corps of NCOs will become what it was 20 years ago, that is, it will contain only NCOs of 28. British Admiralty 1912, 4–5. 29. Remember that, in a time of shorter life expectancies, conscription imposed a considerable burden by taking men away from their civilian lives for up to four years. Stevenson 1996, 6. Rates of pay were so poor in the continental armies that soldiers had to supplement their pay with external sources of income.A French private earned approximately 1 percent of the average civilian wage, a German private 8 percent, and a Russian private 7 percent. Hobson 1993, 490–91. 30. On the translation of rising opportunity costs into political activity, see footnote 6. 31. Porch 1981, 111. 32. Ibid., 202–203. 33. Cited in ibid., 90. 34. Ibid., 197. Economic Expansion and Security in Pre–WWI Europe 205