came to London as members of Buffalo enough in itself, and it certainly under- crops and other food sources that were Bills wild West Show and were found mined the population's resistance to rich in protein with substitutes, high in to be completely free of caries and in many new diseases, including tuberculo- calories but low in protein In Africa, for possession of all their teeth, even though sis. But new foods were also accompa- example, protein-rich staples such as half of the group were over thirty-nine nied by crowded, misplaced teeth, gum millet and sorghum are being replaced years of age. Londoners'teeth were con- diseases, distortion of the face, and systematically by high-yielding manioc spicuous for both their caries and their pinching of the nasal cavity Abnormali- and plantains, which have insignificant steady reduction in number with advanc- ties in the dental arch appeared in the amounts of protein. The problem is in ing age. The difference was attributed new generation following the change in creased for cash croppers and wage la primarily to the wear and polishing diet, while caries appeared almost imme- borers whose earnings are too low and caused by the traditional Indian diet of diately even in adults unpredictable to allow coarse food and the fact that they chewed Price reported that in many areas the quate amounts of protein. In some rural their food longer, encouraged by the ab- affected peoples were conscious of their areas, agricultural laborers have been sence of tableware own physical deterioration. At a mission forced systematically to deprive nonpro- One of the most remarkable studies of school in Africa, the principal asked him ductive members (principally children) the dental conditions of tribal peoples to explain to the native schoolchildren of their households of their minimal nu- and the impact of dietary change was why they were not physically as strong tritional requirements to satisfy the need conducted in the 1930s by Weston Price as children who had had no contact with of the productive members. This process (1945), an American dentist who was schools. On an island in the torres strait has been documented in northeastern terested in determining what caused nor- the natives knew exactly what was caus- Brazil following the introduction of mal, healthy teeth. Between 1931 and ing their problems and resisted--almost large-scale sisal plantations(Gross 1936, Price systematically explored to the point of bloodshed--government Underwood, 1971). In urban centers the tribal areas throughout the world to lo- efforts to establish a store that would difficulties of obtaining nutritionally ad- cate and examine the most isolated peo- make imported food available. The gov- equate diets are even more serious for ples who were still living on traditional ernment prevailed, however, and Price tribal immigrants, because costs are foods. His fieldwork covered Alaska, the was able to establish a relationship be- higher and poor quality foods are more Canadian Yukon, Hudson Bay, Vancou- tween the length of time the government tempting ver Island. florida. the Andes. the Ama- store had been established and the in- One of the most tragic, and largely zon, Samoa, Tahiti, New Zealand, creasing incidence of caries among a overlooked, aspects of chronic malnutr ustralia, New Caledonia, Fiji, the population that showed an almost 100 tion is that it can lead to abnormally Torres Strait, East Africa, and the Nile. percent immunity to them before the undersized brain development and ap- The study demonstrated both the supe- store had been opened parently irreversible brain damage; it has rior quality of aboriginal dentition and In New Zealand, the Maori, who in been associated with various forms of the devastation that occurs as modern di- their aboriginal state are often consid- mental impairment or retardation. Mal- ets are adopted. In nearly every area ered to have been among the healthiest, nutrition has been linked clinically with where traditional foods were still being most perfectly developed of people, mental retardation in both Africa and eaten, Price found perfect teeth with nor- were found to have"advanced "the fur- Latin America (see, for example, al dental arches and virtually no decay, thest. According to Price Monckeberg, 1968), and this appears to whereas caries and abnormalities be a worldwide phenomenon with seri creased steadily as new diets were Their modernization was demon ous implications(Montagu, 1972) adopted In many cases the change was strated not only by the high inci Optimistic supporters of progress will sudden and striking. Among Eskimo dence of dental caries but also by surely say that all of these groups subsisting entirely on traditional the fact that 90 percent of the problems are being overstressed and that food he found caries totally absent adults and 100 percent of the ch the introduction of hospitals, clinics, and whereas in groups eating a considerable dren had abnormalities of the den he other modern health institutions will quantity of store-bought food approxi- tal arche overcome or at least compensate for all mately 20 percent of their teeth were de Price.1945:206 of these difficulties. However, it appears cayed. This figure rose to more than 30 that uncontrolled population growth and percent with Eskimo groups subsisting Malnutrition economic impoverishment probably will almost exclusively on purchased or gov keep most of these benefits out of reach ernment-supplied food, and reached an Malnutrition, particularly in the form of for many tribal peoples, and the interven- incredible 48 percent among the Van- protein deficiency, has become a critical tion of modern medicine has at least couver Island Indians. Unfortunately for problem for tribal peoples who must partly contributed to the problem in the many of these people, modern dental adopt new economic patterns. Popula- first place treatment did not accompany the new tion pressures, cash cropping, and gov- food, and their suffering was appalling. ernment programs all have tended to The generalization that civilization fre- The loss of teeth was, of course, bad encourage the replacement of traditional quently has a broad negative impactArticle 35. The Price of Progress 4 came to London as members of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show and were found to be completely free of caries and in possession of all their teeth, even though half of the group were over thirty-nine years of age. Londoners’ teeth were con￾spicuous for both their caries and their steady reduction in number with advanc￾ing age. The difference was attributed primarily to the wear and polishing caused by the traditional Indian diet of coarse food and the fact that they chewed their food longer, encouraged by the ab￾sence of tableware. One of the most remarkable studies of the dental conditions of tribal peoples and the impact of dietary change was conducted in the 1930s by Weston Price (1945), an American dentist who was in￾terested in determining what caused nor￾mal, healthy teeth. Between 1931 and 1936, Price systematically explored tribal areas throughout the world to lo￾cate and examine the most isolated peo￾ples who were still living on traditional foods. His fieldwork covered Alaska, the Canadian Yukon, Hudson Bay, Vancou￾ver Island, Florida, the Andes, the Ama￾zon, Samoa, Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, the Torres Strait, East Africa, and the Nile. The study demonstrated both the supe￾rior quality of aboriginal dentition and the devastation that occurs as modern di￾ets are adopted. In nearly every area where traditional foods were still being eaten, Price found perfect teeth with nor￾mal dental arches and virtually no decay, whereas caries and abnormalities in￾creased steadily as new diets were adopted. In many cases the change was sudden and striking. Among Eskimo groups subsisting entirely on traditional food he found caries totally absent, whereas in groups eating a considerable quantity of store-bought food approxi￾mately 20 percent of their teeth were de￾cayed. This figure rose to more than 30 percent with Eskimo groups subsisting almost exclusively on purchased or gov￾ernment-supplied food, and reached an incredible 48 percent among the Van￾couver Island Indians. Unfortunately for many of these people, modern dental treatment did not accompany the new food, and their suffering was appalling. The loss of teeth was, of course, bad enough in itself, and it certainly under￾mined the population’s resistance to many new diseases, including tuberculo￾sis. But new foods were also accompa￾nied by crowded, misplaced teeth, gum diseases, distortion of the face, and pinching of the nasal cavity. Abnormali￾ties in the dental arch appeared in the new generation following the change in diet, while caries appeared almost imme￾diately even in adults. Price reported that in many areas the affected peoples were conscious of their own physical deterioration. At a mission school in Africa, the principal asked him to explain to the native schoolchildren why they were not physically as strong as children who had had no contact with schools. On an island in the Torres Strait the natives knew exactly what was caus￾ing their problems and resisted—almost to the point of bloodshed—government efforts to establish a store that would make imported food available. The gov￾ernment prevailed, however, and Price was able to establish a relationship be￾tween the length of time the government store had been established and the in￾creasing incidence of caries among a population that showed an almost 100 percent immunity to them before the store had been opened. In New Zealand, the Maori, who in their aboriginal state are often consid￾ered to have been among the healthiest, most perfectly developed of people, were found to have “advanced” the fur￾thest. According to Price: Their modernization was demon￾strated not only by the high inci￾dence of dental caries but also by the fact that 90 percent of the adults and 100 percent of the chil￾dren had abnormalities of the den￾tal arches. Price, 1945: 206 Malnutrition Malnutrition, particularly in the form of protein deficiency, has become a critical problem for tribal peoples who must adopt new economic patterns. Popula￾tion pressures, cash cropping, and gov￾ernment programs all have tended to encourage the replacement of traditional crops and other food sources that were rich in protein with substitutes, high in calories but low in protein. In Africa, for example, protein-rich staples such as millet and sorghum are being replaced systematically by high-yielding manioc and plantains, which have insignificant amounts of protein. The problem is in￾creased for cash croppers and wage la￾borers whose earnings are too low and unpredictable to allow purchase of ade￾quate amounts of protein. In some rural areas, agricultural laborers have been forced systematically to deprive nonpro￾ductive members (principally children) of their households of their minimal nu￾tritional requirements to satisfy the need of the productive members. This process has been documented in northeastern Brazil following the introduction of large-scale sisal plantations (Gross & Underwood, 1971). In urban centers the difficulties of obtaining nutritionally ad￾equate diets are even more serious for tribal immigrants, because costs are higher and poor quality foods are more tempting. One of the most tragic, and largely overlooked, aspects of chronic malnutri￾tion is that it can lead to abnormally undersized brain development and ap￾parently irreversible brain damage; it has been associated with various forms of mental impairment or retardation. Mal￾nutrition has been linked clinically with mental retardation in both Africa and Latin America (see, for example, Mönckeberg, 1968), and this appears to be a worldwide phenomenon with seri￾ous implications (Montagu, 1972). Optimistic supporters of progress will surely say that all of these new health problems are being overstressed and that the introduction of hospitals, clinics, and the other modern health institutions will overcome or at least compensate for all of these difficulties. However, it appears that uncontrolled population growth and economic impoverishment probably will keep most of these benefits out of reach for many tribal peoples, and the interven￾tion of modern medicine has at least partly contributed to the problem in the first place. The generalization that civilization fre￾quently has a broad negative impact on