430 International Organization characteristics such as ethnocentricism,out-group hostility,or isolationist foreign policy tendencies,education's influence may have little to do with economic self-interest. Hainmueller and Hiscox argue that education represents something other than skill level.5 They find that the effect of education on trade preferences is much the same for Americans who are not currently employed as for those who are working. Equally,there is no distinguishable difference in the effects of education between working individuals and retirees,a subset of nonworking individuals who are unlikely to re-enter the labor force.In their view,the fact that education's impact is not contingent on whether an individual is receiving wages for using his or her skills casts doubt on the factor endowments model.Rather than serving as a proxy for skill,they argue that education represents the effects of exposure to economic ideas among the college-educated.Because mainstream economists generally favor open trade,college-educated individuals will have more exposure to arguments about the economic benefits of foreign commerce than those with less formal education. This claim is consistent with Hainmueller and Hiscox's findings that college- educated individuals have especially protrade attitudes,but these individuals are distinctive from their less educated counterparts in many other ways as well.As Nie,Junn,and Stehlik-Barry point out,education is a powerful predictor of many civic virtues.16 Unfortunately,it is poorly understood why education is linked to these outcomes.Empirical research suggests that education affects political pref- erences in at least two ways:(1)through occupational prominence and position in social networks,and(2)through cognitive proficiency and analytical ability.7 If education serves as a proxy for skill level,then it falls into the first of these cat- egories.Under these circumstances,education influences trade preferences because of where schooling locates people in socioeconomic strata.But since education also contributes to tolerance of different cultures and countries,as well as a belief on the part of Americans that the United States should be more actively engaged in foreign affairs,it remains to be seen if exposure to arguments about the virtues of international trade is driving Hainmueller and Hiscox's results.18 Furthermore,the expected trade attitudes of retirees are far from clear.That education's impact on such attitudes is indistinguishable between workers and retir- ees could reflect a tendency for trade preferences to persist over the course of a lifetime,rather than changing suddenly at retirement.Thus,based on this analysis alone,it is difficult to determine whether skill level influences the formation of trade preferences. The common finding that women are more protectionist than men,even after controlling for educational differences,also has been attributed to a college edu- 15.Hainmueller and Hiscox 2006. 16.Nie,Junn,and Stehlik-Barry 1996. 17.Ibid. 18.See Bauer,Pool,and Dexter 1963,chap.6;Erikson and Tedin 2005;and Fordham 2008.characteristics such as ethnocentricism, out-group hostility, or isolationist foreign policy tendencies, education’s influence may have little to do with economic self-interest+ Hainmueller and Hiscox argue that education represents something other than skill level+ 15 They find that the effect of education on trade preferences is much the same for Americans who are not currently employed as for those who are working+ Equally, there is no distinguishable difference in the effects of education between working individuals and retirees, a subset of nonworking individuals who are unlikely to re-enter the labor force+ In their view, the fact that education’s impact is not contingent on whether an individual is receiving wages for using his or her skills casts doubt on the factor endowments model+ Rather than serving as a proxy for skill, they argue that education represents the effects of exposure to economic ideas among the college-educated+ Because mainstream economists generally favor open trade, college-educated individuals will have more exposure to arguments about the economic benefits of foreign commerce than those with less formal education+ This claim is consistent with Hainmueller and Hiscox’s findings that college￾educated individuals have especially protrade attitudes, but these individuals are distinctive from their less educated counterparts in many other ways as well+ As Nie, Junn, and Stehlik-Barry point out, education is a powerful predictor of many civic virtues+ 16 Unfortunately, it is poorly understood why education is linked to these outcomes+ Empirical research suggests that education affects political pref￾erences in at least two ways: ~1! through occupational prominence and position in social networks, and ~2! through cognitive proficiency and analytical ability+ 17 If education serves as a proxy for skill level, then it falls into the first of these cat￾egories+ Under these circumstances, education influences trade preferences because of where schooling locates people in socioeconomic strata+ But since education also contributes to tolerance of different cultures and countries, as well as a belief on the part of Americans that the United States should be more actively engaged in foreign affairs, it remains to be seen if exposure to arguments about the virtues of international trade is driving Hainmueller and Hiscox’s results+ 18 Furthermore, the expected trade attitudes of retirees are far from clear+ That education’s impact on such attitudes is indistinguishable between workers and retir￾ees could reflect a tendency for trade preferences to persist over the course of a lifetime, rather than changing suddenly at retirement+ Thus, based on this analysis alone, it is difficult to determine whether skill level influences the formation of trade preferences+ The common finding that women are more protectionist than men, even after controlling for educational differences, also has been attributed to a college edu- 15+ Hainmueller and Hiscox 2006+ 16+ Nie, Junn, and Stehlik-Barry 1996+ 17+ Ibid+ 18+ See Bauer, Pool, and Dexter 1963, chap+ 6; Erikson and Tedin 2005; and Fordham 2008+ 430 International Organization