TRANSFORMATION OF FOREIGN POLICIES 373 such a way that it is almost impossible to envisage any considerable de- parture in the direction of the uses of animate sources of power without the most far-reaching changes of the entire system.The multiplication of effort by application of tools is high and the rate is probably increas- ing exponentially." Only a few such societies have existed in history,and they all reached high levels of modernization during the nineteenth or twentieth cen- turics.Those for which the generalizations in this essay are germane include the fourteen socicties identified by Russett and others as "high mass-consumption"societies.They are all modern democracies.There is no logical reason to assume,however,that the foreign policies of nondemocratic modernized societies would not also be subsumed by these generalizations. The gencral characteristics of modernized societies include the growth of knowledge about and control over the physical environment; increased political centralization,accompanicd by the growth of spe- cialized bureaucratic organizations and by the politicization of the masses;the production of economic surpluses and wealth generalized over an entire population;urbanization;and the psychological adjust- ment to change and the flceting,rather than acccptance of the static and permanent.3 The achievement of high levels of modernization has also been asso- ciated with the growth of nationalism and the idcalization of the nation-state as the basic political unit.The consolidation of the nation- state,however,is the central political enigma of contemporary inter- national affairs,for modernization has also been accompanied by trans- national structures that cannot be subjected to the control of isolated national political bodics.Thesc structurcs exist in the military field, where security in the nuclear age has everywhere become increasingly a function of activities pursued outside the state's borders.Thcy also exist in the economic field,where the welfare not only of the members of various societies,but of the societies themselves,increasingly relies upon the maintenance of stable commercial and monetary arrange- ments that are independent of any single national government. The confrontation of the political structures that have developed a Ibid.,85. +See Bruce M.Russett and others,World Handbook of Political and Social Indi- cators (New Haven 1g64),298.These fourteen societies are the Netherlands,West Germany,France,Denmark,Norway,the United Kingdom,Belgium,New Zealand, Australia,Sweden,Luxembourg,Switzerland,Canada,and the United States. s These five characteristics are adopted from Cyril E.Black,The Dynamics of Modernization:A Study in Comparative History (New York 1g67),934