Contents xi 4.4-2 Evaluating Work for a Control 5 The Second Law Volume 173 of Thermodynamics 235 4.4-3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 173 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 236 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 236 Rate Balance 174 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Work 238 Steady State 175 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 238 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 239 Rate Balances 175 5-2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Law 239 Volumes at Steady State 176 5.2.2 Kelvin-Planck Statement of the 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 Second Law 239 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Considerations 178 Law 241 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 178 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 242 4.7 Turbines 180 5-3 Irreversible and Reversible 4-7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Processes 242 Considerations 182 5-3.1 Irreversible Processes 242 4-7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 182 5-3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 244 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 184 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 245 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 246 Considerations 184 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin-Planck 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 184 Statement 247 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Storage 188 Thermodynamic Cycles 248 4.9 Heat Exchangers 189 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Cycles Interacting with Two Considerations 190 Reservoirs 249 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 249 and Computer Cooling 190 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power 4.10 Throttling Devices 194 Cycles 249 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling 5-7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Considerations 194 Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Reservoirs 251 Determine Quality 195 5-7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 251 4.11 System Integration 196 5-7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for 4.12 Transient Analysis 199 Refrigeration and Heat Pump 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Cycles 252 Analysis 199 5.8 The Kelvin and International 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Temperature Scales 253 Analysis 200 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 253 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 201 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 255 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 209 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 256Contents xi 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 173 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 173 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 174 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 175 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 175 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 176 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 178 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 178 4.7 Turbines 180 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 182 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 182 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 184 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 184 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 184 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 188 4.9 Heat Exchangers 189 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 190 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 190 4.10 Throttling Devices 194 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 194 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 195 4.11 System Integration 196 4.12 Transient Analysis 199 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 199 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 200 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 201 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 209 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 235 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 236 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 236 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 238 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 238 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 239 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 239 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 239 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 241 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 242 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 242 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 242 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 244 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 245 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 246 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 247 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 248 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 249 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Effi ciency 249 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 249 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 251 5.7.1 Limits on Coeffi cients of Performance 251 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 252 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 253 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 253 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 255 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 256 FMTOC.indd Page xi 10/14/10 2:09:06 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File