Contents xi 4.5 Form of acquisition of land by gender in six Latin American 5.9 Women bear the brunt of housework and care while men are countries 155 mostly responsible for market work 219 4.6 Working outside the home broadens men's and women's 5.10 Convergence in gender time use patterns is stronger for networks (almost)equally 157 market work than for housework and care work 220 4.7 In most countries,access to contraceptives is a less significant 5.11 In Mexico and Thailand,married women are more likely to constraint than lack of knowledge and opposition to move between inactivity and informal self-employment than contraception 158 men and single women 222 4.8 Progress on inheritance is faster for daughters than for 5.12 Female-headed households are less likely to own and operate widows 160 land than male-headed households 226 4.9 Few women seek services in case of domestic violence 168 5.13 Female-headed households in rural areas are less likely 4.10 Education dampens normative constraints more than than male-headed households to have received credit in the income 169 last 12 months 227 4.11 Despite differences in the age of marriage,many girls still 5.14 Access to productive inputs and markets is lower among marry before the age of 18 170 female-headed households than among male-headed 4.12 Reasons why victims of violence do not seek help 171 households 228 4.13 Even in 2010,women ministers were twice as likely to hold a 5.15 Mutually reinforcing market and institutional constraints are social portfolio than an economic one 177 the main reason why women appear to be in a productivity trap 237 4.14 Women's voice in society is limited by social norms on women's roles and abilities and by formal B5.1.1 Participation rates-Converging 200 institutions 178 B5.8.1 Understanding the amounts of time the opposite sex spends 4.15 Perceptions on leadership skills are still very prevalent,and on nontraditional male/female activities and leisure 221 less educated cohorts are more biased 179 6.1 Global trade has grown rapidly since 1990 255 4.16 Women are much less likely to belong to a political party 6.2 Cell phone and Internet access has increased significantly in than men 179 both developed and developing countries 256 B4.1.1 Sources of income for China's elderly,2005 156 6.3 Economic opportunities have changed 257 B4.3.1 Elderly women are more likely to live alone and elderly men 6.3a Female(and male)employment in the manufacturing and with their spouses 163 service sectors has grown faster in developing countries, B4.3.2 Husband's family receives the majority of his assets in most reflecting the broader changes in the global distribution of countries 163 production and labor 257 5.1 There are systematic gender differences in earnings 202 6.3b...and increases in female employment levels (but not male) 5.2 Women are overrepresented among wage and unpaid family between 1995 and 2005 were correlated with increases in international trade 257 workers 207 6.4 The United States experienced a dramatic increase in brain 5.3 Gender differences in agricultural productivity diminish requirements and a decline in brawn requirements between considerably when access to and use of productive inputs are 1950and2005260 taken into account 208 5.4 Differences in productivity between female and male 6.5 Men and especially women in Brazil,India,Mexico,and entrepreneurs are dwarfed by differences in productivity Thailand have experienced an increase in brain requirements between formal and informal entrepreneurs 208 and a decline in brawn requirements over the past 15 years 261 5.5 Economic development is positively correlated with the share of female workers in wage employment and negatively 6.6 In Africa,women are less likely than men to own or use a correlated with the share of women in unpaid work,self- cell phone 262 employment,and entrepreneurship 212 6.7 Differences in Internet access and use between developed 5.6 Tanzania and Brazil illustrate how employment patterns by and developing countries are still very large,and gender gender change with economic growth 213 gaps are significant in some developed and developing countries 263 5.7 Industry and occupational segregation patterns are common across countries with very different levels of economic 6.8 Telework has grown rapidly in recent years,particularly development and aggregate sectoral distributions of among female workers 265 employment 214 6.9 The share of female employment varies significantly across 5.8 Access to economic opportunities and the resulting industries 266 segregation in employment are the product of households, 6.10 The number of countries that have ratified CEDAW has risen markets,and institutions,and their interactions 217 in all regions to reach 187,of 193,in 2011 266Contents xi 4.5 Form of acquisition of land by gender in six Latin American countries 155 4.6 Working outside the home broadens men’s and women’s networks (almost) equally 157 4.7 In most countries, access to contraceptives is a less signifi cant constraint than lack of knowledge and opposition to contraception 158 4.8 Progress on inheritance is faster for daughters than for widows 160 4.9 Few women seek services in case of domestic violence 168 4.10 Education dampens normative constraints more than income 169 4.11 Despite differences in the age of marriage, many girls still marry before the age of 18 170 4.12 Reasons why victims of violence do not seek help 171 4.13 Even in 2010, women ministers were twice as likely to hold a social portfolio than an economic one 177 4.14 Women’s voice in society is limited by social norms on women’s roles and abilities and by formal institutions 178 4.15 Perceptions on leadership skills are still very prevalent, and less educated cohorts are more biased 179 4.16 Women are much less likely to belong to a political party than men 179 B4.1.1 Sources of income for China’s elderly, 2005 156 B4.3.1 Elderly women are more likely to live alone and elderly men with their spouses 163 B4.3.2 Husband’s family receives the majority of his assets in most countries 163 5.1 There are systematic gender differences in earnings 202 5.2 Women are overrepresented among wage and unpaid family workers 207 5.3 Gender differences in agricultural productivity diminish considerably when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into account 208 5.4 Differences in productivity between female and male entrepreneurs are dwarfed by differences in productivity between formal and informal entrepreneurs 208 5.5 Economic development is positively correlated with the share of female workers in wage employment and negatively correlated with the share of women in unpaid work, self￾employment, and entrepreneurship 212 5.6 Tanzania and Brazil illustrate how employment patterns by gender change with economic growth 213 5.7 Industry and occupational segregation patterns are common across countries with very different levels of economic development and aggregate sectoral distributions of employment 214 5.8 Access to economic opportunities and the resulting segregation in employment are the product of households, markets, and institutions, and their interactions 217 5.9 Women bear the brunt of housework and care while men are mostly responsible for market work 219 5.10 Convergence in gender time use patterns is stronger for market work than for housework and care work 220 5.11 In Mexico and Thailand, married women are more likely to move between inactivity and informal self-employment than men and single women 222 5.12 Female-headed households are less likely to own and operate land than male-headed households 226 5.13 Female-headed households in rural areas are less likely than male-headed households to have received credit in the last 12 months 227 5.14 Access to productive inputs and markets is lower among female-headed households than among male-headed households 228 5.15 Mutually reinforcing market and institutional constraints are the main reason why women appear to be in a productivity trap 237 B5.1.1 Participation rates—Converging 200 B5.8.1 Understanding the amounts of time the opposite sex spends on nontraditional male/female activities and leisure 221 6.1 Global trade has grown rapidly since 1990 255 6.2 Cell phone and Internet access has increased signifi cantly in both developed and developing countries 256 6.3 Economic opportunities have changed 257 6.3a Female (and male) employment in the manufacturing and service sectors has grown faster in developing countries, refl ecting the broader changes in the global distribution of production and labor 257 6.3b . . . and increases in female employment levels (but not male) between 1995 and 2005 were correlated with increases in international trade 257 6.4 The United States experienced a dramatic increase in brain requirements and a decline in brawn requirements between 1950 and 2005 260 6.5 Men and especially women in Brazil, India, Mexico, and Thailand have experienced an increase in brain requirements and a decline in brawn requirements over the past 15 years 261 6.6 In Africa, women are less likely than men to own or use a cell phone 262 6.7 Differences in Internet access and use between developed and developing countries are still very large, and gender gaps are signifi cant in some developed and developing countries 263 6.8 Telework has grown rapidly in recent years, particularly among female workers 265 6.9 The share of female employment varies signifi cantly across industries 266 6.10 The number of countries that have ratifi ed CEDAW has risen in all regions to reach 187, of 193, in 2011 266