X CONTENTS 10 Across the world,women spend more hours per day on care 3.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been and housework than men 19 achieved in much of the world,but tertiary enrollments are 11 Gender differences in agricultural productivity disappear very low and favor women 107 when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into 3.2 In most countries with moderate or high total inequality in account 20 educational outcomes,less than one-fifth of inequality stems from gender 108 B0.1 GDP per capita and gender equality are positively 3.3 What explains progress in school enrollments? 109 correlated 49 3.4 Free primary education reduced gender gaps in 1.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been enrollments 110 achieved in much of the world,and tertiary enrollments 3.5 Cross-country differences in mean scores on the 2009 PISA now favor women 61 dwarf gender differences within countries 114 1.2 Gender explains little of the inequality in education 3.6 Adult and child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa 118 participation for children 12-15 years old 63 3.7 Adult mortality:Over time and by sex 119 1.3 Women are living longer than men 64 3.8 Income growth did not reduce excess female mortality during 1.4 What took the United States 100 years took India 40 and 1990-2008 in low-and middle-income countries 123 the Islamic Republic of Iran 10 64 3.9 Why are so many girls missing at birth?124 1.5 Gender explains little of the inequality in use of preventive 3.10 There is little or no gender disadvantage in vaccination rates, health services 65 nutrition outcomes,or use of health services when a child 1.6 The gender gap in labor force participation narrowed falls sick 126 between 1980 and 2008 66 Small differences do not explain the variation in the fraction 1.7 Across countries,at every income level,female labor force of excess deaths across countries 126 participation increased between 1980 and 2008 66 3.11 Men and women,boys and girls,are treated the same when 1.8 Who agrees that a university education is more important for they visit health facilities 127 a boy than for a girl？68 3.12 Levels of excess female childhood mortality in high-income 1.9 Who agrees that when jobs are scarce,men should have more countries in the early 1900s were similar to those of low-and right to a job than women? 68 middle-income countries today...128 ..and the excess female mortality declined with reduction in 2.1 Female enrollments remain strikingly low in some overall childhood mortality 128 countries 73 3.13 Maternal mortality ratios declined steeply in selected 2.2 In some countries,female disadvantage augments at lower countries during 1930-60 129 incomes...74 3.14 High income countries today had excess female mortality 2.3...yet in others,at low levels of wealth girls stay longer in at the reproductive ages during the first half of the school than boys 75 20 th century.· 130 2.4 At low incomes,fertility rates remain high-And the poorer ..and the excess mortality at all income levels declines with the country,the larger the gap between rich and poor 76 reductions in maternal mortality 130 2.5 Maternal mortality in many developing countries is similar to that in Sweden before 1900 78 3.15 What explains excess mortality among girls and women in the reproductive ages?131 2.6 Women are more likely than men to work in the informal 3.16 Excess female mortality by age in four countries with high sector 79 HIV prevalence 132 2.7 Women and men work in different sectors(and different 3.17 In some countries,there is excess male mortality 133 occupations)80 3A.1 Sex ratio and age-specific mortality,2008 139 2.8 Across the world,women spend more hours each day on housework and care than men...and men spend more time 3A.2 Excess female mortality globally at each age in 2008 using in market activities 81 various reference groups 140 2.9 Who controls women's own income?82 4.1 Witnessing violence as a child is associated with perpetrating 2.10 Perceptions in many nations are that wife-beating is violence as an adult 152 justifiable 83 4.2 Limited progress in women's agency is explained by mutually 2.11 There is great heterogeneity in rates of domestic violence reinforcing constraints in markets,formal institutions,and reported across nations 84 informal institutions 153 2.12 Men are perceived as better political leaders than 4.3 Richer women marry later 154 women 85 4.4 Women's control is greater in wealthier households 155x CONTENTS 10 Across the world, women spend more hours per day on care and housework than men 19 11 Gender differences in agricultural productivity disappear when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into account 20 B0.1 GDP per capita and gender equality are positively correlated 49 1.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been achieved in much of the world, and tertiary enrollments now favor women 61 1.2 Gender explains little of the inequality in education participation for children 12–15 years old 63 1.3 Women are living longer than men 64 1.4 What took the United States 100 years took India 40 and the Islamic Republic of Iran 10 64 1.5 Gender explains little of the inequality in use of preventive health services 65 1.6 The gender gap in labor force participation narrowed between 1980 and 2008 66 1.7 Across countries, at every income level, female labor force participation increased between 1980 and 2008 66 1.8 Who agrees that a university education is more important for a boy than for a girl? 68 1.9 Who agrees that when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women? 68 2.1 Female enrollments remain strikingly low in some countries 73 2.2 In some countries, female disadvantage augments at lower incomes . . . 74 2.3 . . . yet in others, at low levels of wealth girls stay longer in school than boys 75 2.4 At low incomes, fertility rates remain high—And the poorer the country, the larger the gap between rich and poor 76 2.5 Maternal mortality in many developing countries is similar to that in Sweden before 1900 78 2.6 Women are more likely than men to work in the informal sector 79 2.7 Women and men work in different sectors (and different occupations) 80 2.8 Across the world, women spend more hours each day on housework and care than men . . . and men spend more time in market activities 81 2.9 Who controls women’s own income? 82 2.10 Perceptions in many nations are that wife-beating is justifi able 83 2.11 There is great heterogeneity in rates of domestic violence reported across nations 84 2.12 Men are perceived as better political leaders than women 85 3.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been achieved in much of the world, but tertiary enrollments are very low and favor women 107 3.2 In most countries with moderate or high total inequality in educational outcomes, less than one-fi fth of inequality stems from gender 108 3.3 What explains progress in school enrollments? 109 3.4 Free primary education reduced gender gaps in enrollments 110 3.5 Cross-country differences in mean scores on the 2009 PISA dwarf gender differences within countries 114 3.6 Adult and child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa 118 3.7 Adult mortality: Over time and by sex 119 3.8 Income growth did not reduce excess female mortality during 1990–2008 in low- and middle-income countries 123 3.9 Why are so many girls missing at birth? 124 3.10 There is little or no gender disadvantage in vaccination rates, nutrition outcomes, or use of health services when a child falls sick 126 Small differences do not explain the variation in the fraction of excess deaths across countries 126 3.11 Men and women, boys and girls, are treated the same when they visit health facilities 127 3.12 Levels of excess female childhood mortality in high-income countries in the early 1900s were similar to those of low- and middle-income countries today . . . 128 . . . and the excess female mortality declined with reduction in overall childhood mortality 128 3.13 Maternal mortality ratios declined steeply in selected countries during 1930–60 129 3.14 High income countries today had excess female mortality at the reproductive ages during the fi rst half of the 20th century . . . 130 . . . and the excess mortality at all income levels declines with reductions in maternal mortality 130 3.15 What explains excess mortality among girls and women in the reproductive ages? 131 3.16 Excess female mortality by age in four countries with high HIV prevalence 132 3.17 In some countries, there is excess male mortality 133 3A.1 Sex ratio and age-specifi c mortality, 2008 139 3A.2 Excess female mortality globally at each age in 2008 using various reference groups 140 4.1 Witnessing violence as a child is associated with perpetrating violence as an adult 152 4.2 Limited progress in women’s agency is explained by mutually reinforcing constraints in markets, formal institutions, and informal institutions 153 4.3 Richer women marry later 154 4.4 Women’s control is greater in wealthier households 155