world development rope GENDER EQUALITY ANDDEVELOPMENT THE WORLD BANK
2012 world development report GENDER EQUALITY ANDDEVELOPMENT
2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone:202-473-1000 Internet:www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 123414131211 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel- opment/The World Bank.The findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denominations,and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted.Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law.The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work,please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc.,222 Rosewood Drive,Dan- vers,MA 01923,USA;telephone:978-750-8400;fax:978-750-4470;Internet:www.copyright .com. All other queries on rights and licenses,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher,The World Bank,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433, USA;fax:202-522-2422;e-mail:pubrights@worldbank.org. Softcover ISSN:0163-5085 ISBN:978-0-8213-8810-5 eISBN:978-0-8213-8812-9 DOL:10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5 Hardcover ISSN:0163-5085 ISBN:978-0-8213-8825-9 D0L:10.1596/978-0-8213-8825-9 Cover photo:Arne Hoel,World Bank Photo credits:Overview/World Bank,Part I/National Geographic,Part II/Kiet Vo, Part III/National Geographic Cover design:Critical Stages Figures design and infographics:Design Symphony,Cymetrics,Harkness Design, and Naylor Design For the firts time,the World Development Report is published with a companino mobile app for the iPad.Key features include:access content from the WDR 2012 in multiple ways; browse by key messages;browse and search the report by topic,region,and keyboard;access the report overview and key messages document,both available in 7 languages;share and save features;and view tabular data from the report.For more information,visit bit.ly/ wdr2012app
© 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 14 13 12 11 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The fi ndings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily refl ect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright .com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Offi ce of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Softcover ISSN: 0163-5085 ISBN: 978-0-8213-8810-5 eISBN: 978-0-8213-8812-9 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5 Hardcover ISSN: 0163-5085 ISBN: 978-0-8213-8825-9 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8825-9 Cover photo: Arne Hoel, World Bank Photo credits: Overview/World Bank, Part I/National Geographic, Part II/Kiet Vo, Part III/National Geographic Cover design: Critical Stages Figures design and infographics: Design Symphony, Cymetrics, Harkness Design, and Naylor Design For the fi rts time, the World Development Report is published with a companino mobile app for the iPad. Key features include: access content from the WDR 2012 in multiple ways; browse by key messages; browse and search the report by topic, region, and keyboard; access the report overview and key messages document, both available in 7 languages; share and save features; and view tabular data from the report. For more information, visit bit.ly/ wdr2012app
Contents Foreword xiii Acknowledgments XV Abbreviations and data notes xvii Main messages XX Overview 2 Why does gender equality matter for development? What does this Report do?6 Where has there been the most progress in gender equality? 8 Where have gender inequalities persisted and why?13 What is to be done?22 The political economy of reforms for gender equality 35 A global agenda for greater gender equality 36 Notes 38 References 40 Introduction:A guide to the Report 46 Gender equality and development:Why do the links matter? 46 What does this Report do?48 Navigating this Report:A roadmap 50 Notes 51 References 51 Part I Taking stock of gender equality 54 1 A wave of progress 56 Times are changing?56 Rising global consensus for women's rights 57 Better outcomes for women in many domains 59 Change begets change 66 Notes 69 References 69
v Contents Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations and data notes xvii Main messages xx Overview 2 Why does gender equality matter for development? 2 What does this Report do? 6 Where has there been the most progress in gender equality? 8 Where have gender inequalities persisted and why? 13 What is to be done? 22 The political economy of reforms for gender equality 35 A global agenda for greater gender equality 36 Notes 38 References 40 Introduction: A guide to the Report 46 Gender equality and development: Why do the links matter? 46 What does this Report do? 48 Navigating this Report: A roadmap 50 Notes 51 References 51 Part I Taking stock of gender equality 54 1 A wave of progress 56 Times are changing? 56 Rising global consensus for women’s rights 57 Better outcomes for women in many domains 59 Change begets change 66 Notes 69 References 69
i CONTENTS 2 The persistence of gender inequality 72 Severely disadvantaged populations 73 “Sticky”domains,.despite economic progress 76 Reversals 85 “Sticky”gets“stickier” 87 Notes 88 References 89 Spread 1 Women's pathways to empowerment:Do all roads lead to Rome? 94 Notes 97 References 97 Part ll What has driven progress?What impedes it? 98 Explaining the framework 99 Applying the framework 101 Notes 102 References 102 3 Education and health:Where do gender differences really matter？ 104 Endowments matter 105 Education 106 Health 117 Technical Annex 3.1 Computing the flow of missing girls at birth and excess female mortality after birth 139 Chapter summary:In reducing gender gaps in education and health, tremendous progress has been made where lifting a single barrier-in households,markets,or institutions-is sufficient to improve outcomes. Progress has been slower either where multiple barriers need to be lifted at the same time or where a single point of entry produces bottlenecks 141 Notes 142 References 143 Promoting women's agency 150 Women's agency matters 151 Economic growth can promote women's agency but has limited impact 152 Rights and their effective implementation shape women's choices and voices 157 Social norms prevent-or promote-gains in women's agency 168 Women's collective agency can shape institutions,markets,and social norms 176 Chapter summary:Women continue to have less capacity than men to exercise agency 181
vi CONTENTS 2 The persistence of gender inequality 72 Severely disadvantaged populations 73 “Sticky” domains, despite economic progress 76 Reversals 85 “Sticky” gets “stickier” 87 Notes 88 References 89 Spread 1 Women’s pathways to empowerment: Do all roads lead to Rome? 94 Notes 97 References 97 Part II What has driven progress? What impedes it? 98 Explaining the framework 99 Applying the framework 101 Notes 102 References 102 3 Education and health: Where do gender differences really matter? 104 Endowments matter 105 Education 106 Health 117 Technical Annex 3.1 Computing the fl ow of missing girls at birth and excess female mortality after birth 139 Chapter summary: In reducing gender gaps in education and health, tremendous progress has been made where lifting a single barrier—in households, markets, or institutions—is suffi cient to improve outcomes. Progress has been slower either where multiple barriers need to be lifted at the same time or where a single point of entry produces bottlenecks 141 Notes 142 References 143 4 Promoting women’s agency 150 Women’s agency matters 151 Economic growth can promote women’s agency but has limited impact 152 Rights and their effective implementation shape women’s choices and voices 157 Social norms prevent—or promote—gains in women’s agency 168 Women’s collective agency can shape institutions, markets, and social norms 176 Chapter summary: Women continue to have less capacity than men to exercise agency 181
Contents vii Notes 182 References 184 Spread 2 The decline of the breadwinner:Men in the 21st century 194 Note 196 5 Gender differences in employment and why they matter 198 Understanding gender differences in productivity and earnings 201 What explains employment segregation by gender?A first look 210 Gender,time use,and employment segregation 215 Gender differences in access to productive inputs and employment segregation 224 Gender impacts of "aggregate"market and institutional failures 230 Breaking out of the productivity trap:How and why to do it 236 Chapter summary:Persistent employment segregation by gender traps women in low-productivity,low-paying jobs 239 Notes 240 References 242 6 Globalization's impact on gender equality: What's happened and what's needed 254 The world is becoming more integrated-Recent trends and facts 255 Trade openness and ICTs have increased women's access to economic opportunities 255 Adapt or miss the boat 264 Globalization could also promote more egalitarian gender roles and norms 267 Old problems,emerging risks 269 Is the glass half full or half empty?The need for public action 271 Chapter summary:Globalization has the potential to contribute to greater gender equality 271 Notes 272 References 273 Spread 3 Changing ages,changing bodies,changing times-Adolescent boys and girls 280 Note 283 Part Ill The role of and potential for public action 284 Choosing the right policies 285 Enabling policy implementation 285 The global agenda for action 286 7 Public action for gender equality 288 Policies to reduce gaps in health and education 289 Policies to improve economic opportunities 296
Contents vii Notes 182 References 184 Spread 2 The decline of the breadwinner: Men in the 21st century 194 Note 196 5 Gender differences in employment and why they matter 198 Understanding gender differences in productivity and earnings 201 What explains employment segregation by gender? A fi rst look 210 Gender, time use, and employment segregation 215 Gender differences in access to productive inputs and employment segregation 224 Gender impacts of “aggregate” market and institutional failures 230 Breaking out of the productivity trap: How and why to do it 236 Chapter summary: Persistent employment segregation by gender traps women in low-productivity, low-paying jobs 239 Notes 240 References 242 6 Globalization’s impact on gender equality: What’s happened and what’s needed 254 The world is becoming more integrated—Recent trends and facts 255 Trade openness and ICTs have increased women’s access to economic opportunities 255 Adapt or miss the boat 264 Globalization could also promote more egalitarian gender roles and norms 267 Old problems, emerging risks 269 Is the glass half full or half empty? The need for public action 271 Chapter summary: Globalization has the potential to contribute to greater gender equality 271 Notes 272 References 273 Spread 3 Changing ages, changing bodies, changing times—Adolescent boys and girls 280 Note 283 Part III The role of and potential for public action 284 Choosing the right policies 285 Enabling policy implementation 285 The global agenda for action 286 7 Public action for gender equality 288 Policies to reduce gaps in health and education 289 Policies to improve economic opportunities 296
viii CONTENTS Policies to improve women's agency 305 Avoiding the reproduction of gender inequalities across generations for adolescents and young adults 314 Making gender-smart policies:Focusing"gender mainstreaming" 317 Wanted:Better evidence 320 Notes 321 References 323 8 The political economy of gender reform 330 Informal institutions-Social networks as agents of change 332 Inclusive markets 340 Bringing gender into formal institutions and policies 345 Seizing windows of opportunities 348 Pathways to change 350 Notes 354 References 355 9 A global agenda for greater gender equality 360 Rationale for and focus of a global agenda 360 What to do and how to do it 362 Notes 370 References 371 Bibliographical Note 373 Background Papers and Notes 377 Selected Indicators 381 Selected World Development Indicators 389 Index 411 Boxes 1 What do we mean by gender equality?4 7 Intervening early to overcome future labor market failures- 2 The Millennium Development Goals recognize the intrinsic The Adolescent Girls Initiative 34 and instrumental value of gender equality 4 0.1 Problems with estimating the effect of gender equality on 3 How women and men define gender in the 21st growth 49 century 7 4 What do we mean by markets,formal institutions,and 1.1 Gender and the Millennium Development Goals 58 informal social institutions?8 2.1 The many faces of climate change 86 5 Reducing maternal mortality-What works?Look at Malaysia and Sri Lanka 25 3.1 Adult mortality risks:Who are the outliers?119 6 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 29 3.2 Four Africas 135
viii CONTENTS Policies to improve women’s agency 305 Avoiding the reproduction of gender inequalities across generations for adolescents and young adults 314 Making gender-smart policies: Focusing “gender mainstreaming” 317 Wanted: Better evidence 320 Notes 321 References 323 8 The political economy of gender reform 330 Informal institutions—Social networks as agents of change 332 Inclusive markets 340 Bringing gender into formal institutions and policies 345 Seizing windows of opportunities 348 Pathways to change 350 Notes 354 References 355 9 A global agenda for greater gender equality 360 Rationale for and focus of a global agenda 360 What to do and how to do it 362 Notes 370 References 371 Bibliographical Note 373 Background Papers and Notes 377 Selected Indicators 381 Selected World Development Indicators 389 Index 411 Boxes 1 What do we mean by gender equality? 4 2 The Millennium Development Goals recognize the intrinsic and instrumental value of gender equality 4 3 How women and men defi ne gender in the 21st century 7 4 What do we mean by markets, formal institutions, and informal social institutions? 8 5 Reducing maternal mortality—What works? Look at Malaysia and Sri Lanka 25 6 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 29 7 Intervening early to overcome future labor market failures— The Adolescent Girls Initiative 34 0.1 Problems with estimating the effect of gender equality on growth 49 1.1 Gender and the Millennium Development Goals 58 2.1 The many faces of climate change 86 3.1 Adult mortality risks: Who are the outliers? 119 3.2 Four Africas 135
Contents ix 4.1 Pensions-Coverage,amounts,and survivor benefits are 6.3 Occupational tasks and skill requirements-Getting the important for women's autonomy 156 terms right 259 4.2 Property in marriage (and divorce)162 6.4 Leveraging mobile and ICT technology to improve access to 4.3 Widows risk losing their assets but might gain some services 264 freedom 163 6.5 Globalization and working conditions-Some progress,but 4.4 Legal pluralism and its prevalence 165 more needs to be done 267 4.5 What does it mean to be a"good wife"and a"good 7.1 Improving water supply:Dakar and Phnom Penh 291 husband"?172 7.2 Reducing maternal mortality:What Malaysia and Sri Lanka 4.6 Masculinity and its impact on roles,preferences,and have done 295 behaviors 173 7.3 Protecting men and women and boys and girls from income 4.7 Why do social norms persist? 174 shocks 296 4.8 How stereotypes influence performance 175 7.4 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 301 5.1 Closing the access gap-Recent advances in female labor 7.5 Innovative approaches to expanding access to finance for force participation 199 women and entrepreneurs 303 5.2 Women in the boardroom 204 7.6 Including women's voice in peace and postconflict reconstruction processes 308 5.3 Gender discrimination in hiring?Evidence from employment audit studies 205 8.1 Georgia-Evolving gender roles in a new society 332 5.4 What do we mean by employment segregation by 8.2 Feminism in perspective 334 gender? 206 8.3 Competing interests-Caste,ethnic,and religious politics 5.5 Good jobs and bad jobs:What are they and who does and gender 335 them?211 8.4 More women in public office-The Namibian Women's 5.6 The seeds of segregation are planted early-How gender Manifesto Network 335 differences in education trajectories shape employment segregation 216 8.5 Differences among women about their right to vote- The case of Switzerland 336 5.7 Overview of data used in analyzing gender differences in time use patterns 218 8.6 Domestic workers in Brazil 337 5.8 What did you do all day?Perceptions on time use patterns of 8.7 How popular culture can change social attitudes 339 the opposite sex 221 8.8 Four good practices for greater gender diversity 342 5.9 Gender of the household head versus household 8.9 Land titling in Peru-Using a gender lens for a gender- composition:What matters most for policy?225 neutral program 346 5.10 Family formation and public sector employment in 8.10 Gender machineries in practice 347 Egypt 232 8.11 Courts and constitutional challenges in Uganda's divorce 5.11 The business case for gender equality 238 law 348 8.12 Fiji:International norms as a driver of gender equality in 6.1 A job today or a better job tomorrow-The impact of family law 349 increased access to economic opportunities on women's human capital 258 8.13 Changing social norms from the bottom up 352 6.2 The impact of globalization on men (and women)in 8.14 Tunisia-Women's voice and women's rights 353 developed countries 259 8.15 Sweden-Encouraging an involved fatherhood 353 Figures I Gender outcomes result from interactions between 5 Female labor force participation has increased over time at households,markets,and institutions 9 all income levels 12 2 Across the world,women are having fewer children 6 Low-income countries lag behind in realizing progress in 3 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been female school enrollment 13 achieved in much of the world,but tertiary enrollments are 7 Female disadvantage within countries is more marked at very low and favor women 10 low incomes 14 4 Using the framework to explain progress in 8 Women and men work in different sectors 16 education 11 9 Explaining persistent segregation and earnings gaps 18
Contents ix 4.1 Pensions—Coverage, amounts, and survivor benefi ts are important for women’s autonomy 156 4.2 Property in marriage (and divorce) 162 4.3 Widows risk losing their assets but might gain some freedom 163 4.4 Legal pluralism and its prevalence 165 4.5 What does it mean to be a “good wife” and a “good husband”? 172 4.6 Masculinity and its impact on roles, preferences, and behaviors 173 4.7 Why do social norms persist? 174 4.8 How stereotypes infl uence performance 175 5.1 Closing the access gap—Recent advances in female labor force participation 199 5.2 Women in the boardroom 204 5.3 Gender discrimination in hiring? Evidence from employment audit studies 205 5.4 What do we mean by employment segregation by gender? 206 5.5 Good jobs and bad jobs: What are they and who does them? 211 5.6 The seeds of segregation are planted early—How gender differences in education trajectories shape employment segregation 216 5.7 Overview of data used in analyzing gender differences in time use patterns 218 5.8 What did you do all day? Perceptions on time use patterns of the opposite sex 221 5.9 Gender of the household head versus household composition: What matters most for policy? 225 5.10 Family formation and public sector employment in Egypt 232 5.11 The business case for gender equality 238 6.1 A job today or a better job tomorrow—The impact of increased access to economic opportunities on women’s human capital 258 6.2 The impact of globalization on men (and women) in developed countries 259 6.3 Occupational tasks and skill requirements—Getting the terms right 259 6.4 Leveraging mobile and ICT technology to improve access to services 264 6.5 Globalization and working conditions—Some progress, but more needs to be done 267 7.1 Improving water supply: Dakar and Phnom Penh 291 7.2 Reducing maternal mortality: What Malaysia and Sri Lanka have done 295 7.3 Protecting men and women and boys and girls from income shocks 296 7.4 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 301 7.5 Innovative approaches to expanding access to fi nance for women and entrepreneurs 303 7.6 Including women’s voice in peace and postconfl ict reconstruction processes 308 8.1 Georgia—Evolving gender roles in a new society 332 8.2 Feminism in perspective 334 8.3 Competing interests—Caste, ethnic, and religious politics and gender 335 8.4 More women in public offi ce—The Namibian Women’s Manifesto Network 335 8.5 Differences among women about their right to vote— The case of Switzerland 336 8.6 Domestic workers in Brazil 337 8.7 How popular culture can change social attitudes 339 8.8 Four good practices for greater gender diversity 342 8.9 Land titling in Peru—Using a gender lens for a genderneutral program 346 8.10 Gender machineries in practice 347 8.11 Courts and constitutional challenges in Uganda’s divorce law 348 8.12 Fiji: International norms as a driver of gender equality in family law 349 8.13 Changing social norms from the bottom up 352 8.14 Tunisia—Women’s voice and women’s rights 353 8.15 Sweden—Encouraging an involved fatherhood 353 Figures 1 Gender outcomes result from interactions between households, markets, and institutions 9 2 Across the world, women are having fewer children 9 3 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been achieved in much of the world, but tertiary enrollments are very low and favor women 10 4 Using the framework to explain progress in education 11 5 Female labor force participation has increased over time at all income levels 12 6 Low-income countries lag behind in realizing progress in female school enrollment 13 7 Female disadvantage within countries is more marked at low incomes 14 8 Women and men work in different sectors 16 9 Explaining persistent segregation and earnings gaps 18
X CONTENTS 10 Across the world,women spend more hours per day on care 3.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been and housework than men 19 achieved in much of the world,but tertiary enrollments are 11 Gender differences in agricultural productivity disappear very low and favor women 107 when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into 3.2 In most countries with moderate or high total inequality in account 20 educational outcomes,less than one-fifth of inequality stems from gender 108 B0.1 GDP per capita and gender equality are positively 3.3 What explains progress in school enrollments? 109 correlated 49 3.4 Free primary education reduced gender gaps in 1.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been enrollments 110 achieved in much of the world,and tertiary enrollments 3.5 Cross-country differences in mean scores on the 2009 PISA now favor women 61 dwarf gender differences within countries 114 1.2 Gender explains little of the inequality in education 3.6 Adult and child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa 118 participation for children 12-15 years old 63 3.7 Adult mortality:Over time and by sex 119 1.3 Women are living longer than men 64 3.8 Income growth did not reduce excess female mortality during 1.4 What took the United States 100 years took India 40 and 1990-2008 in low-and middle-income countries 123 the Islamic Republic of Iran 10 64 3.9 Why are so many girls missing at birth?124 1.5 Gender explains little of the inequality in use of preventive 3.10 There is little or no gender disadvantage in vaccination rates, health services 65 nutrition outcomes,or use of health services when a child 1.6 The gender gap in labor force participation narrowed falls sick 126 between 1980 and 2008 66 Small differences do not explain the variation in the fraction 1.7 Across countries,at every income level,female labor force of excess deaths across countries 126 participation increased between 1980 and 2008 66 3.11 Men and women,boys and girls,are treated the same when 1.8 Who agrees that a university education is more important for they visit health facilities 127 a boy than for a girl？68 3.12 Levels of excess female childhood mortality in high-income 1.9 Who agrees that when jobs are scarce,men should have more countries in the early 1900s were similar to those of low-and right to a job than women? 68 middle-income countries today...128 ..and the excess female mortality declined with reduction in 2.1 Female enrollments remain strikingly low in some overall childhood mortality 128 countries 73 3.13 Maternal mortality ratios declined steeply in selected 2.2 In some countries,female disadvantage augments at lower countries during 1930-60 129 incomes...74 3.14 High income countries today had excess female mortality 2.3...yet in others,at low levels of wealth girls stay longer in at the reproductive ages during the first half of the school than boys 75 20 th century.· 130 2.4 At low incomes,fertility rates remain high-And the poorer ..and the excess mortality at all income levels declines with the country,the larger the gap between rich and poor 76 reductions in maternal mortality 130 2.5 Maternal mortality in many developing countries is similar to that in Sweden before 1900 78 3.15 What explains excess mortality among girls and women in the reproductive ages?131 2.6 Women are more likely than men to work in the informal 3.16 Excess female mortality by age in four countries with high sector 79 HIV prevalence 132 2.7 Women and men work in different sectors(and different 3.17 In some countries,there is excess male mortality 133 occupations)80 3A.1 Sex ratio and age-specific mortality,2008 139 2.8 Across the world,women spend more hours each day on housework and care than men...and men spend more time 3A.2 Excess female mortality globally at each age in 2008 using in market activities 81 various reference groups 140 2.9 Who controls women's own income?82 4.1 Witnessing violence as a child is associated with perpetrating 2.10 Perceptions in many nations are that wife-beating is violence as an adult 152 justifiable 83 4.2 Limited progress in women's agency is explained by mutually 2.11 There is great heterogeneity in rates of domestic violence reinforcing constraints in markets,formal institutions,and reported across nations 84 informal institutions 153 2.12 Men are perceived as better political leaders than 4.3 Richer women marry later 154 women 85 4.4 Women's control is greater in wealthier households 155
x CONTENTS 10 Across the world, women spend more hours per day on care and housework than men 19 11 Gender differences in agricultural productivity disappear when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into account 20 B0.1 GDP per capita and gender equality are positively correlated 49 1.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been achieved in much of the world, and tertiary enrollments now favor women 61 1.2 Gender explains little of the inequality in education participation for children 12–15 years old 63 1.3 Women are living longer than men 64 1.4 What took the United States 100 years took India 40 and the Islamic Republic of Iran 10 64 1.5 Gender explains little of the inequality in use of preventive health services 65 1.6 The gender gap in labor force participation narrowed between 1980 and 2008 66 1.7 Across countries, at every income level, female labor force participation increased between 1980 and 2008 66 1.8 Who agrees that a university education is more important for a boy than for a girl? 68 1.9 Who agrees that when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women? 68 2.1 Female enrollments remain strikingly low in some countries 73 2.2 In some countries, female disadvantage augments at lower incomes . . . 74 2.3 . . . yet in others, at low levels of wealth girls stay longer in school than boys 75 2.4 At low incomes, fertility rates remain high—And the poorer the country, the larger the gap between rich and poor 76 2.5 Maternal mortality in many developing countries is similar to that in Sweden before 1900 78 2.6 Women are more likely than men to work in the informal sector 79 2.7 Women and men work in different sectors (and different occupations) 80 2.8 Across the world, women spend more hours each day on housework and care than men . . . and men spend more time in market activities 81 2.9 Who controls women’s own income? 82 2.10 Perceptions in many nations are that wife-beating is justifi able 83 2.11 There is great heterogeneity in rates of domestic violence reported across nations 84 2.12 Men are perceived as better political leaders than women 85 3.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been achieved in much of the world, but tertiary enrollments are very low and favor women 107 3.2 In most countries with moderate or high total inequality in educational outcomes, less than one-fi fth of inequality stems from gender 108 3.3 What explains progress in school enrollments? 109 3.4 Free primary education reduced gender gaps in enrollments 110 3.5 Cross-country differences in mean scores on the 2009 PISA dwarf gender differences within countries 114 3.6 Adult and child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa 118 3.7 Adult mortality: Over time and by sex 119 3.8 Income growth did not reduce excess female mortality during 1990–2008 in low- and middle-income countries 123 3.9 Why are so many girls missing at birth? 124 3.10 There is little or no gender disadvantage in vaccination rates, nutrition outcomes, or use of health services when a child falls sick 126 Small differences do not explain the variation in the fraction of excess deaths across countries 126 3.11 Men and women, boys and girls, are treated the same when they visit health facilities 127 3.12 Levels of excess female childhood mortality in high-income countries in the early 1900s were similar to those of low- and middle-income countries today . . . 128 . . . and the excess female mortality declined with reduction in overall childhood mortality 128 3.13 Maternal mortality ratios declined steeply in selected countries during 1930–60 129 3.14 High income countries today had excess female mortality at the reproductive ages during the fi rst half of the 20th century . . . 130 . . . and the excess mortality at all income levels declines with reductions in maternal mortality 130 3.15 What explains excess mortality among girls and women in the reproductive ages? 131 3.16 Excess female mortality by age in four countries with high HIV prevalence 132 3.17 In some countries, there is excess male mortality 133 3A.1 Sex ratio and age-specifi c mortality, 2008 139 3A.2 Excess female mortality globally at each age in 2008 using various reference groups 140 4.1 Witnessing violence as a child is associated with perpetrating violence as an adult 152 4.2 Limited progress in women’s agency is explained by mutually reinforcing constraints in markets, formal institutions, and informal institutions 153 4.3 Richer women marry later 154 4.4 Women’s control is greater in wealthier households 155
Contents xi 4.5 Form of acquisition of land by gender in six Latin American 5.9 Women bear the brunt of housework and care while men are countries 155 mostly responsible for market work 219 4.6 Working outside the home broadens men's and women's 5.10 Convergence in gender time use patterns is stronger for networks (almost)equally 157 market work than for housework and care work 220 4.7 In most countries,access to contraceptives is a less significant 5.11 In Mexico and Thailand,married women are more likely to constraint than lack of knowledge and opposition to move between inactivity and informal self-employment than contraception 158 men and single women 222 4.8 Progress on inheritance is faster for daughters than for 5.12 Female-headed households are less likely to own and operate widows 160 land than male-headed households 226 4.9 Few women seek services in case of domestic violence 168 5.13 Female-headed households in rural areas are less likely 4.10 Education dampens normative constraints more than than male-headed households to have received credit in the income 169 last 12 months 227 4.11 Despite differences in the age of marriage,many girls still 5.14 Access to productive inputs and markets is lower among marry before the age of 18 170 female-headed households than among male-headed 4.12 Reasons why victims of violence do not seek help 171 households 228 4.13 Even in 2010,women ministers were twice as likely to hold a 5.15 Mutually reinforcing market and institutional constraints are social portfolio than an economic one 177 the main reason why women appear to be in a productivity trap 237 4.14 Women's voice in society is limited by social norms on women's roles and abilities and by formal B5.1.1 Participation rates-Converging 200 institutions 178 B5.8.1 Understanding the amounts of time the opposite sex spends 4.15 Perceptions on leadership skills are still very prevalent,and on nontraditional male/female activities and leisure 221 less educated cohorts are more biased 179 6.1 Global trade has grown rapidly since 1990 255 4.16 Women are much less likely to belong to a political party 6.2 Cell phone and Internet access has increased significantly in than men 179 both developed and developing countries 256 B4.1.1 Sources of income for China's elderly,2005 156 6.3 Economic opportunities have changed 257 B4.3.1 Elderly women are more likely to live alone and elderly men 6.3a Female(and male)employment in the manufacturing and with their spouses 163 service sectors has grown faster in developing countries, B4.3.2 Husband's family receives the majority of his assets in most reflecting the broader changes in the global distribution of countries 163 production and labor 257 5.1 There are systematic gender differences in earnings 202 6.3b...and increases in female employment levels (but not male) 5.2 Women are overrepresented among wage and unpaid family between 1995 and 2005 were correlated with increases in international trade 257 workers 207 6.4 The United States experienced a dramatic increase in brain 5.3 Gender differences in agricultural productivity diminish requirements and a decline in brawn requirements between considerably when access to and use of productive inputs are 1950and2005260 taken into account 208 5.4 Differences in productivity between female and male 6.5 Men and especially women in Brazil,India,Mexico,and entrepreneurs are dwarfed by differences in productivity Thailand have experienced an increase in brain requirements between formal and informal entrepreneurs 208 and a decline in brawn requirements over the past 15 years 261 5.5 Economic development is positively correlated with the share of female workers in wage employment and negatively 6.6 In Africa,women are less likely than men to own or use a correlated with the share of women in unpaid work,self- cell phone 262 employment,and entrepreneurship 212 6.7 Differences in Internet access and use between developed 5.6 Tanzania and Brazil illustrate how employment patterns by and developing countries are still very large,and gender gender change with economic growth 213 gaps are significant in some developed and developing countries 263 5.7 Industry and occupational segregation patterns are common across countries with very different levels of economic 6.8 Telework has grown rapidly in recent years,particularly development and aggregate sectoral distributions of among female workers 265 employment 214 6.9 The share of female employment varies significantly across 5.8 Access to economic opportunities and the resulting industries 266 segregation in employment are the product of households, 6.10 The number of countries that have ratified CEDAW has risen markets,and institutions,and their interactions 217 in all regions to reach 187,of 193,in 2011 266
Contents xi 4.5 Form of acquisition of land by gender in six Latin American countries 155 4.6 Working outside the home broadens men’s and women’s networks (almost) equally 157 4.7 In most countries, access to contraceptives is a less signifi cant constraint than lack of knowledge and opposition to contraception 158 4.8 Progress on inheritance is faster for daughters than for widows 160 4.9 Few women seek services in case of domestic violence 168 4.10 Education dampens normative constraints more than income 169 4.11 Despite differences in the age of marriage, many girls still marry before the age of 18 170 4.12 Reasons why victims of violence do not seek help 171 4.13 Even in 2010, women ministers were twice as likely to hold a social portfolio than an economic one 177 4.14 Women’s voice in society is limited by social norms on women’s roles and abilities and by formal institutions 178 4.15 Perceptions on leadership skills are still very prevalent, and less educated cohorts are more biased 179 4.16 Women are much less likely to belong to a political party than men 179 B4.1.1 Sources of income for China’s elderly, 2005 156 B4.3.1 Elderly women are more likely to live alone and elderly men with their spouses 163 B4.3.2 Husband’s family receives the majority of his assets in most countries 163 5.1 There are systematic gender differences in earnings 202 5.2 Women are overrepresented among wage and unpaid family workers 207 5.3 Gender differences in agricultural productivity diminish considerably when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into account 208 5.4 Differences in productivity between female and male entrepreneurs are dwarfed by differences in productivity between formal and informal entrepreneurs 208 5.5 Economic development is positively correlated with the share of female workers in wage employment and negatively correlated with the share of women in unpaid work, selfemployment, and entrepreneurship 212 5.6 Tanzania and Brazil illustrate how employment patterns by gender change with economic growth 213 5.7 Industry and occupational segregation patterns are common across countries with very different levels of economic development and aggregate sectoral distributions of employment 214 5.8 Access to economic opportunities and the resulting segregation in employment are the product of households, markets, and institutions, and their interactions 217 5.9 Women bear the brunt of housework and care while men are mostly responsible for market work 219 5.10 Convergence in gender time use patterns is stronger for market work than for housework and care work 220 5.11 In Mexico and Thailand, married women are more likely to move between inactivity and informal self-employment than men and single women 222 5.12 Female-headed households are less likely to own and operate land than male-headed households 226 5.13 Female-headed households in rural areas are less likely than male-headed households to have received credit in the last 12 months 227 5.14 Access to productive inputs and markets is lower among female-headed households than among male-headed households 228 5.15 Mutually reinforcing market and institutional constraints are the main reason why women appear to be in a productivity trap 237 B5.1.1 Participation rates—Converging 200 B5.8.1 Understanding the amounts of time the opposite sex spends on nontraditional male/female activities and leisure 221 6.1 Global trade has grown rapidly since 1990 255 6.2 Cell phone and Internet access has increased signifi cantly in both developed and developing countries 256 6.3 Economic opportunities have changed 257 6.3a Female (and male) employment in the manufacturing and service sectors has grown faster in developing countries, refl ecting the broader changes in the global distribution of production and labor 257 6.3b . . . and increases in female employment levels (but not male) between 1995 and 2005 were correlated with increases in international trade 257 6.4 The United States experienced a dramatic increase in brain requirements and a decline in brawn requirements between 1950 and 2005 260 6.5 Men and especially women in Brazil, India, Mexico, and Thailand have experienced an increase in brain requirements and a decline in brawn requirements over the past 15 years 261 6.6 In Africa, women are less likely than men to own or use a cell phone 262 6.7 Differences in Internet access and use between developed and developing countries are still very large, and gender gaps are signifi cant in some developed and developing countries 263 6.8 Telework has grown rapidly in recent years, particularly among female workers 265 6.9 The share of female employment varies signifi cantly across industries 266 6.10 The number of countries that have ratifi ed CEDAW has risen in all regions to reach 187, of 193, in 2011 266
xii CONTENTS 7.1 Reducing gaps in endowments 290 8.6 Progress toward increasing women's rights is 7.2 Improving economic opportunities 296 clustered around major international human rights conferences 350 7.3 Improving women's agency 306 S1.1 Main factors in moving up the ladder 94 8.1 Social actors and their interactions shape the role of markets, formal and informal institutions in advancing gender S1.2 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Bukoba, equality 331 Tanzania (urban)96 8.2 Social networks can engage public opinion,mobilize support, S1.3 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Dhamar,Republic of and inspire change 333 Yemen(rural)96 8.3 Men around the world support women's rights and S2.1 Factors that explain gains in power 195 policies 338 S2.2 Factors that explain losses of power 196 8.4 Economic and political economy considerations have prodded firms to promote gender equality S3.1 Characteristics of good girls/boys and bad girls/boys 281 policies 341 S3.2 Adolescents opinions on women's roles 283 8.5 State action is central for the design and adoption of gender-progressive policies 345 P2.1 Gender outcomes result from interactions between households,markets,and institutions 101 Maps 1 Earnings gaps between women and men 17 B4.2.1 Women in different parts of the world have different control over assets-Which matters in case of divorce or 0.1 Economies where qualitative assessments were the husband's death 162 conducted 50 5.1 Gender differences in occupation and industry of 3.1 In China and India,the number of girls missing at birth employment account for a large fraction of the gender gap remains high,and parts of Africa experienced large increases after accounting for individual characteristics 209 in excess female mortality during 1990-2008 122 B5.1.1 Female labor force participation-Some high rates and 4.1 In Sub-Saharan Africa,customary laws are formally some low 199 recognized in most countries,and at times are discriminatory 166 Tables 1 Almost 4 million missing women each year 15 3.2 Skewed sex ratios at birth and excess female mortality 2 The agenda for global action at a glance 38 persist across the world,leading to females missing at birth and excess female mortality during childhood and the 2.1 Missing girls at birth increased between 1990 and 2008 in reproductive years 121 India and China,as did excess female mortality in adulthood in Sub-Saharan Africa 77 5.1 Female farmers have lower average productivity than male farmers 202 3.1 Gender segregation in field of study:In most countries, women dominate health and education studies and men 9.1 The agenda for global action at a glance 361 dominate engineering and sciences 115
xii CONTENTS Tables 1 Almost 4 million missing women each year 15 2 The agenda for global action at a glance 38 2.1 Missing girls at birth increased between 1990 and 2008 in India and China, as did excess female mortality in adulthood in Sub-Saharan Africa 77 3.1 Gender segregation in fi eld of study: In most countries, women dominate health and education studies and men dominate engineering and sciences 115 3.2 Skewed sex ratios at birth and excess female mortality persist across the world, leading to females missing at birth and excess female mortality during childhood and the reproductive years 121 5.1 Female farmers have lower average productivity than male farmers 202 9.1 The agenda for global action at a glance 361 Maps 1 Earnings gaps between women and men 17 0.1 Economies where qualitative assessments were conducted 50 3.1 In China and India, the number of girls missing at birth remains high, and parts of Africa experienced large increases in excess female mortality during 1990–2008 122 4.1 In Sub-Saharan Africa, customary laws are formally recognized in most countries, and at times are discriminatory 166 B4.2.1 Women in different parts of the world have different control over assets—Which matters in case of divorce or the husband’s death 162 5.1 Gender differences in occupation and industry of employment account for a large fraction of the gender gap after accounting for individual characteristics 209 B5.1.1 Female labor force participation —Some high rates and some low 199 7.1 Reducing gaps in endowments 290 7.2 Improving economic opportunities 296 7.3 Improving women’s agency 306 8.1 Social actors and their interactions shape the role of markets, formal and informal institutions in advancing gender equality 331 8.2 Social networks can engage public opinion, mobilize support, and inspire change 333 8.3 Men around the world support women’s rights and policies 338 8.4 Economic and political economy considerations have prodded fi rms to promote gender equality policies 341 8.5 State action is central for the design and adoption of gender-progressive policies 345 8.6 Progress toward increasing women’s rights is clustered around major international human rights conferences 350 S1.1 Main factors in moving up the ladder 94 S1.2 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Bukoba, Tanzania (urban) 96 S1.3 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Dhamar, Republic of Yemen (rural) 96 S2.1 Factors that explain gains in power 195 S2.2 Factors that explain losses of power 196 S3.1 Characteristics of good girls/boys and bad girls/boys 281 S3.2 Adolescents opinions on women’s roles 283 P2.1 Gender outcomes result from interactions between households, markets, and institutions 101
