United Nations Development Programme（UNDP）：Human Development Report 2015 Work for Human Development.pdf_大学文库

United Nations Development Programme One United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017 www.undp.org Empowered lives. Resilient nations. Human Development Report 2015 Work for Human Development Empowered lives. Resilient nations. Empowered lives. Resilient nations. Human Development Report 2015 | Work for Human Development Human development is all about enlarging human choices— focusing on the richness of human lives rather than simply the richness of economies. Critical to this process is work, which engages people all over the world in different ways and takes up a major part of their lives. Of the world’s 7.3 billion people, 3.2 billion are in jobs, and others engage in care work, creative work, and voluntary work or prepare themselves as future workers. From a human development perspective, the notion of work is broader and deeper than that of jobs or employment alone. The jobs framework fails to capture many kinds of work that have important human development implications—as with care work, voluntary work and such creative expression as writing or painting. The links between work and human development are synergistic. Work enhances human development by providing incomes and livelihoods, by reducing poverty, and by ensuring equitable growth. It also allows people to participate fully in society while affording them a sense of dignity and worth. And work that involves caring for others builds social cohesion and strengthens bonds within families and communities. Human beings working together not only increase material well-being, they also accumulate a wide body of knowledge that is the basis for cultures and civilizations. And when all this work is environmentally friendly, the benefits extend across generations. Ultimately, work unleashes human potential, human creativity and the human spirit. But there is no automatic link between work and human development and that some work, such as forced labour, can damage human development by violating human rights, shattering human dignity, and sacrificing freedom and autonomy. Some work, such as work in hazardous industries, also puts people at risk. And without proper policies, work’s unequal opportunities and rewards can be divisive, perpetuating inequities in society. The fast changing world of work, driven by globalization of work and the digital revolution, presents opportunities, but at the same time poses risks. The benefits of this evolving new world of work is not equally distributed and there are winners and losers. Addressing imbalances in paid and unpaid work will be a challenge, particularly for women, who are disadvantaged on both fronts. Creating work opportunities for both present and future generations would require moving towards sustainable work. Work can enhance human development when policies expand productive, remunerative, satisfying and quality work opportunities—enhance workers’ skills and potential— ensure their rights, safety, and well-being—and specific strategies are targeted to particular issues and groups of people. But it would also require pursuing an action agenda for a New Social Contract, a Global Deal and Decent Work. ”Women are disadvantaged in the world of work—in both paid and unpaid work. In the realm of paid work they are engaged in the workforce less than men, they earn less, their work tends to be more vulnerable and they are underrepresented in senior management and decisionmaking positions. In terms of unpaid work they bear a disproportionate share of the housework and care work." —United Nations Development Programme Administrator Helen Clark “Child labour is not an isolated problem and cannot be solved in isolation. The international community must realize that if we cannot protect our children, we cannot protect our development. We have to end violence against children.” —2 014 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Kailash Satyarthi “The notion of creative work may be problematic and difficult to conceptualize, but that should not deter us from treating creativity as a key measure of human development. Today, we value our creativity as an essential component of human development.” —2006 Nobel Prize in Literature recipient Orhan Pamuk “Just like women’s invisible work in the household, women’s work in community building and conflict resolution, which has significant human development implications often goes unacknowledged.” —2011 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Leymah Gbowee “Work, not just jobs, contributes to human progress and enhances human development. But there is no automatic link between work and human development.” —Report lead author Selim Jahan ISBN 978-92-1-126398-5

清。种 1 Foreword M Twenty five years ago the first Human The Report reminds us that there is no au- Development Report in 1990 began with tomatic link between work and human devel- a simple notion:that development is about opment.The quality of work is an important enlarging people's choices-focusing broadly dimension of ensuring that work enhances on the richness of human lives rather than human development.Issues such as discrimi- narrowly on the richness of economies.Work nation and violence,however,prevent positive is a major foundation for both the richness of links between work and human development. economies and the richness of human lives but Some work is very damaging to human devel- has tended to be conceptualized in economic opment,such as child labour,forced labour terms rather than in human development and the labour of trafficked workers,all of terms.The 2015 Human Development Report which constitute serious violations of human goes beyond that convention in directly link- rights.In many cases workers in hazardous ing work to the richness of human lives. conditions face serious risks of abuse,insecuri- This Report starts with a fundamental ty and loss of freedom and autonomy. question-how can work enhance human All these issues are becoming even more development?The Report takes a broad view critical to address as the world of work,driven of work,going beyond jobs and taking into ac- by globalization and technological revolution, count such activities as unpaid care work,vol- is undergoing rapid changes.Globalization untary work and creative work-all of which has generated gains for some and losses for contribute to the richness of human lives. others.The digital revolution has created new The Report highlights impressive progress opportunities,but has also given rise to new on human development over the past quarter challenges,such as irregular contracts and century.Today people are living longer,more short-term work,which are asymmetrically children are in school and more people have distributed between highly skilled and un- access to clean water and basic sanitation.Per skilled workers. capita income in the world has gone up,and The Report makes a strong case that women poverty has gone down,resulting in a better are disadvantaged in the world of work-in standard of living for many people.The digital both paid and unpaid work.In the realm of revolution has connected people across coun- paid work,they are engaged in the workforce tries and societies.Work has contributed to less than men,they earn less,their work this progress by building people's capabilities. tends to be more vulnerable and they are Decent work has provided people with a sense underrepresented in senior management and of dignity and an opportunity to engage fully decisionmaking positions.In terms of unpaid in society. work,they bear a disproportionate share of the Considerable challenges remain,from per- housework and care work. sistent poverty and grinding inequalities to cli- The Report identifies sustainable work, mate change and environmental sustainability which promotes human development while in general,and to confict and instability.These reducing and eliminating negative side effects all create barriers to people fully engaging in and unintended consequences,as a major decent work,and as a result huge amounts of building block of sustainable development. human potential remain untapped.This is of Such work would expand opportunities for particular concern for young people,women, the present generation without shrinking people with disabilities and others who may those for future ones. be marginalized.The Report argues that if the The Report argues that enhancing human potential of all people is harnessed through development through work requires policies appropriate strategies and proper policies,hu- and strategies in three broad areas-creating man progress would be accelerated and human work opportunities,ensuring workers'well-be- development deficits would be reduced. ing and developing targeted actions.The first Foreword iii

Foreword Twenty five years ago the first Human Development Report in 1990 began with a simple notion: that development is about enlarging people’s choices—focusing broadly on the richness of human lives rather than narrowly on the richness of economies. Work is a major foundation for both the richness of economies and the richness of human lives but has tended to be conceptualized in economic terms rather than in human development terms. The 2015 Human Development Report goes beyond that convention in directly linking work to the richness of human lives. This Report starts with a fundamental question—how can work enhance human development? The Report takes a broad view of work, going beyond jobs and taking into account such activities as unpaid care work, voluntary work and creative work—all of which contribute to the richness of human lives. The Report highlights impressive progress on human development over the past quarter century. Today people are living longer, more children are in school and more people have access to clean water and basic sanitation. Per capita income in the world has gone up, and poverty has gone down, resulting in a better standard of living for many people. The digital revolution has connected people across countries and societies. Work has contributed to this progress by building people’s capabilities. Decent work has provided people with a sense of dignity and an opportunity to engage fully in society. Considerable challenges remain, from persistent poverty and grinding inequalities to climate change and environmental sustainability in general, and to conflict and instability. These all create barriers to people fully engaging in decent work, and as a result huge amounts of human potential remain untapped. This is of particular concern for young people, women, people with disabilities and others who may be marginalized. The Report argues that if the potential of all people is harnessed through appropriate strategies and proper policies, human progress would be accelerated and human development deficits would be reduced. The Report reminds us that there is no automatic link between work and human development. The quality of work is an important dimension of ensuring that work enhances human development. Issues such as discrimination and violence, however, prevent positive links between work and human development. Some work is very damaging to human development, such as child labour, forced labour and the labour of trafficked workers, all of which constitute serious violations of human rights. In many cases workers in hazardous conditions face serious risks of abuse, insecurity and loss of freedom and autonomy. All these issues are becoming even more critical to address as the world of work, driven by globalization and technological revolution, is undergoing rapid changes. Globalization has generated gains for some and losses for others. The digital revolution has created new opportunities, but has also given rise to new challenges, such as irregular contracts and short-term work, which are asymmetrically distributed between highly skilled and unskilled workers. The Report makes a strong case that women are disadvantaged in the world of work—in both paid and unpaid work. In the realm of paid work, they are engaged in the workforce less than men, they earn less, their work tends to be more vulnerable and they are underrepresented in senior management and decisionmaking positions. In terms of unpaid work, they bear a disproportionate share of the housework and care work. The Report identifies sustainable work, which promotes human development while reducing and eliminating negative side effects and unintended consequences, as a major building block of sustainable development. Such work would expand opportunities for the present generation without shrinking those for future ones. The Report argues that enhancing human development through work requires policies and strategies in three broad areas—creating work opportunities, ensuring workers’ well-being and developing targeted actions. The first Foreword | iii

清。种 1 Acknowledgements M The 2015 Human Development Report is the Duffy,Peter Evans,Nancy Folbre,Gary product of the Human Development Report Gereffi,Enrico Giovannini,Marina Gorbis, Office (HDRO)at the United Nations James Heintz,Jens Lerche,Jose Antonio Development Programme(UNDP). Ocampo,Samir Radwan,Akihiko Tanaka, The findings,analysis and policy recom- Lester Salamon,Frances Stewart,Rob Voss, mendations of the Report are those of HDRO Rebecca Winthrop and Ruan Zongze. alone and cannot be attributed to UNDP The Statistical Advisory Panel plays a critical or to its Executive Board.The UN General role in extending expert advice on methodol- Assembly has officially recognized the Human ogies and data choices related to the calcula- Development Report as "an independent in- tion of the Report's indices.Its members are tellectual exercise"that has become"an impor- Wasmalia Bivar,Martine Durand,Haishan Fu, tant tool for raising awareness about human Pascual Gerstenfeld,Ifeyinwa Isiekwe,Yemi development around the world." Kale,Rafael Diez de Medina,Fiona Robertson The Report has benefited from a series of con- and Michaela Saisana.The composite indices tributions by eminent people and organizations. and other statistical resources in the Report Particular appreciation is due for the signed also rely on the expertise of the leading interna- contributions by HE Mr.Benigno S.Aquino III tional data providers in their specialized fields. (President of the Philippines),Leymah Gbowee To ensure accuracy and clarity,the statistical (winner of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize),HE analysis has also benefitted from discussions Ms.Roza Otunbayeva(former president of of statistical issues with Gisela Robles Aguilar, Kyrgyzstan),Nohra Padilla(recipient of the Sabina Alkire,Jacques Charmes,Kenneth 2013 Goldman Environmental Prize),Orhan Harttgen,Claudio Montenegro and Yangyang Pamuk (winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Shen.I deeply appreciate their contributions. Literature),Robert Reich(former United States The Report also benefitted from dialogues Secretary of Labor),Kailash Satyarthi (winner with representatives from national statistical of the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize)and HE Mr. offices to further refine and update source data Maithripala Sirisena(President of Sri Lanka). used for the compilation of internationally Appreciations are also extended for con- generated indicators. tributions commissioned from the following The consultations convened during prepa- authors:Antonio Andreoni,Marizio Atzeni,ration of the Report relied on the generous Fred Block,David Bloom,Jacques Charmes,support of many institutions and individuals Martha Chen,Diane Coyle,Christopher who are too numerous to mention here. Cramer,Peter Evans,Peter Frase,Nancy Events and consultations were held in Accra, Folbre,Marina Gorbis,Kenneth Harttgen,Boston,Geneva and Singapore(participants Rolph Eric van der Hoeven,Rizwanul Islam,and partners are listed at http://hdr.undp.org/ Patrick Kabanda,Claudio Montenegro, en/2015-report/consultations). Nameera Nuzhat,Dani Rodrik,Jill Rubery, A Report focusing on work would not Malcolm Sawyer,Frances Stewart,Miguel have been possible without extensive consul- Szekely,Marilyn Waring and Lanying Zhang. tations and generous investment of time by a Discussions with experts in many disciplines wide range of colleagues at the International are equally necessary and valuable for the Labour Organization both in Geneva and development of the Report,starting with an New York.Colleagues at the United Nations informal sounding round,followed by con- Food and Agriculture Organization,United sultations with a designated advisory panel for Nations Children's Fund,United Nations the 2015 Report.The commitment of time, Volunteers and UN Women also offered much advice and reviews from the following individ- valued insights and commentary.Valuable uals are highly valued:Amartya Sen,Sudhir financial contributions were received from the Anand,Amy Armenia,Martha Chen,Mignon Governments of France and Germany. Acknowledgements v

Acknowledgements The 2015 Human Development Report is the product of the Human Development Report Office (HDRO) at the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The findings, analysis and policy recommendations of the Report are those of HDRO alone and cannot be attributed to UNDP or to its Executive Board. The UN General Assembly has officially recognized the Human Development Report as “an independent intellectual exercise” that has become “an important tool for raising awareness about human development around the world.” The Report has benefited from a series of contributions by eminent people and organizations. Particular appreciation is due for the signed contributions by HE Mr. Benigno S. Aquino III (President of the Philippines), Leymah Gbowee (winner of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize), HE Ms. Roza Otunbayeva (former president of Kyrgyzstan), Nohra Padilla (recipient of the 2013 Goldman Environmental Prize), Orhan Pamuk (winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Literature), Robert Reich (former United States Secretary of Labor), Kailash Satyarthi (winner of the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize) and HE Mr. Maithripala Sirisena (President of Sri Lanka). Appreciations are also extended for contributions commissioned from the following authors: Antonio Andreoni, Marizio Atzeni, Fred Block, David Bloom, Jacques Charmes, Martha Chen, Diane Coyle, Christopher Cramer, Peter Evans, Peter Frase, Nancy Folbre, Marina Gorbis, Kenneth Harttgen, Rolph Eric van der Hoeven, Rizwanul Islam, Patrick Kabanda, Claudio Montenegro, Nameera Nuzhat, Dani Rodrik, Jill Rubery, Malcolm Sawyer, Frances Stewart, Miguel Szekely, Marilyn Waring and Lanying Zhang. Discussions with experts in many disciplines are equally necessary and valuable for the development of the Report, starting with an informal sounding round, followed by consultations with a designated advisory panel for the 2015 Report. The commitment of time, advice and reviews from the following individuals are highly valued: Amartya Sen, Sudhir Anand, Amy Armenia, Martha Chen, Mignon Duffy, Peter Evans, Nancy Folbre, Gary Gereffi, Enrico Giovannini, Marina Gorbis, James Heintz, Jens Lerche, José Antonio Ocampo, Samir Radwan, Akihiko Tanaka, Lester Salamon, Frances Stewart, Rob Voss, Rebecca Winthrop and Ruan Zongze. The Statistical Advisory Panel plays a critical role in extending expert advice on methodologies and data choices related to the calculation of the Report’s indices. Its members are Wasmalia Bivar, Martine Durand, Haishan Fu, Pascual Gerstenfeld, Ifeyinwa Isiekwe, Yemi Kale, Rafael Diez de Medina, Fiona Robertson and Michaela Saisana. The composite indices and other statistical resources in the Report also rely on the expertise of the leading international data providers in their specialized fields. To ensure accuracy and clarity, the statistical analysis has also benefitted from discussions of statistical issues with Gisela Robles Aguilar, Sabina Alkire, Jacques Charmes, Kenneth Harttgen, Claudio Montenegro and Yangyang Shen. I deeply appreciate their contributions. The Report also benefitted from dialogues with representatives from national statistical offices to further refine and update source data used for the compilation of internationally generated indicators. The consultations convened during preparation of the Report relied on the generous support of many institutions and individuals who are too numerous to mention here. Events and consultations were held in Accra, Boston, Geneva and Singapore (participants and partners are listed at http://hdr.undp.org/ en/2015-report/consultations). A Report focusing on work would not have been possible without extensive consultations and generous investment of time by a wide range of colleagues at the International Labour Organization both in Geneva and New York. Colleagues at the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Volunteers and UN Women also offered much valued insights and commentary. Valuable financial contributions were received from the Governments of France and Germany. Acknowledgements | v

Contents Foreword CHAPTER 5 Acknowledgements Moving to sustainable work 131 Setting the context:goals for sustainable development 131 Overview Sustainability in the human development framework 131 CHAPTER 1 Work and sustainable development 136 Sustainable Development Goals revisited-what they imply for work Work and human development-analytical links 144 29 Conclusions 148 Work is broader than jobs 29 Work in different stages of the lifecycle 30 CHAPTER 6 Work enhances human development 32 Enhancing human development through work 151 The link between work and human development is not automatic 34 Strategies for creating work opportunities 151 Work that damages human development 40 Strategies for ensuring workers'well-being 160 Workers at risk 44 Strategies for targeted action 169 Conclusions 46 An agenda for action-three pillars 178 CHAPTER 2 Conclusions 181 Human development and work:progress and challenges 的 Notes 187 The scale of human progress and contributions of work 55 References 190 Serious human deprivations,but considerable human potential not in use 58 Further human development challenges 64 STATISTICAL ANNEX Human development-looking forward 71 Readers guide 203 Statistical tables CHAPTER 3 1.Human Development Index and its components 208 The changing world of work 77 2.Human Development Index trends,1990-2014 212 Structural transformation of work 公 3.Inequality-adiusted Human Development Index 216 4. Technological revolution 80 Gender Development Index 220 5. Gender Inequality Index 224 Globalizing work 83 6. Multidimensional Poverty Index:developing countries 228 Work in the digital age 吗 7. Multidimensional Poverty Index:changes over time 230 New frontiers for work 89 8. Population trends 234 The modern workforce 95 9. Health outcomes 238 Promises as yet unfulfilled 98 10.Education achievements 242 Implications for human development 102 11.National income and composition of resources 246 12.Environmental sustainability 250 Conclusions 103 13.Work and employment 254 14.Human security 258 CHAPTER 4 15.International integration 262 Imbalances in paid and unpaid work 107 16.Supplementary indicators:perceptions of well-being 266 Disparities in the world of paid work 108 Regions 270 Imbalances in unpaid work 116 Statistical references 271 Emerging challenges-care gaps,health shocks and climate change 119 Towards a rebalancing-expanding choices,empowering people 121 Conclusions 122 Contents vii

Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgements v Overview 1 CHAPTER 1 Work and human development—analytical links 29 Work is broader than jobs 29 Work in different stages of the lifecycle 30 Work enhances human development 32 The link between work and human development is not automatic 34 Work that damages human development 40 Workers at risk 44 Conclusions 46 CHAPTER 2 Human development and work: progress and challenges 55 The scale of human progress and contributions of work 55 Serious human deprivations, but considerable human potential not in use 58 Further human development challenges 64 Human development—looking forward 71 CHAPTER 3 The changing world of work 77 Structural transformation of work 77 Technological revolution 80 Globalizing work 83 Work in the digital age 87 New frontiers for work 89 The modern workforce 95 Promises as yet unfulfilled 98 Implications for human development 102 Conclusions 103 CHAPTER 4 Imbalances in paid and unpaid work 107 Disparities in the world of paid work 108 Imbalances in unpaid work 116 Emerging challenges—care gaps, health shocks and climate change 119 Towards a rebalancing—expanding choices, empowering people 121 Conclusions 122 CHAPTER 5 Moving to sustainable work 131 Setting the context: goals for sustainable development 131 Sustainability in the human development framework 131 Work and sustainable development 136 Sustainable Development Goals revisited—what they imply for work 144 Conclusions 148 CHAPTER 6 Enhancing human development through work 151 Strategies for creating work opportunities 151 Strategies for ensuring workers’ well-being 160 Strategies for targeted action 169 An agenda for action—three pillars 178 Conclusions 181 Notes 187 References 190 STATISTICAL ANNEX Readers guide 203 Statistical tables 1. Human Development Index and its components 208 2. Human Development Index trends, 1990–2014 212 3. Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index 216 4. Gender Development Index 220 5. Gender Inequality Index 224 6. Multidimensional Poverty Index: developing countries 228 7. Multidimensional Poverty Index: changes over time 230 8. Population trends 234 9. Health outcomes 238 10. Education achievements 242 11. National income and composition of resources 246 12. Environmental sustainability 250 13. Work and employment 254 14. Human security 258 15. International integration 262 16. Supplementary indicators: perceptions of well-being 266 Regions 270 Statistical references 271 Contents | vii

SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS 6.16 Cash for care work 172 Building peace,restoring hope:women's role in nation building-Leymah Gbowee 40 6.17 Gender policies in Norway 173 Working towards the elimination of child labour-Kailash Satyarthi 42 6.18 Turkey's private sector initiative on overcoming skills mismatch at the Inequality and labour markets-Robert Reich 66 local level 174 6.19 The "social wage"of work 176 Creative work-Orhan Pamuk 96 Central Asia:emerged region,emerging challenges and opportunities for women 6.20 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 177 -Roza Otunbayeva 116 6.21 Flexicurity in Denmark 180 Community participation for improving rural livelihoods-lessons from the past 6.22 Four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 180 -Maithripala Sirisena 134 Recyclers:from waste pickers to global agents of sustainable development FIGURES Nohra Padilla 138 1 Work engages people all over the world in different ways 2 Building skills and protecting workers for inclusive growth-Benigno S.Aquinol 158 2 Work and human development are synergistic 3 3 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 6 BOXES 4 Speed of adoption of new technologies in the United States 7 1 Human development-a comprehensive approach 2 5 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 2 Measuring human development 3 6 Women's representation in senior management in business,by region,2015 12 3 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 21 7 The matrix of sustainable work 14 4 Flexicurity in Denmark 23 8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work 17 5 The four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 23 9 Number of countries having ratifed International Labour Organization 1.1 What is work? 30 conventions,1990 and 2014 19 1.2 Measures of quality of work 35 1.1 Work encompasses more than just jobs 1.3 What brings happiness-having a job or something beyond it? 36 1.2 Workers from countries with low pension coverage tend to stay in the 2.1 Uneven access to the digital revolution 令 labour market after age 65,while workers from countries with high pension 2.2 Impact of long-term youth unemployment 64 coverage tend to retire earlier 32 2.3 Alternative measures of human well-being 72 1.3 Work and human development are synergistic 33 3.1 An encapsulated history of work 78 1.4 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development % 1.5 Women and girls account for a larger share of forced labour than men 3.2 The fourth industrial revolution 82 and boys,2012 41 3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina-local development through outsourcing 85 1.6 Annual profits from forced labour have been highest in Asia and the Pacific 3.4 Challenges for start-ups in the Arab States 92 since 2006 必 3.5 Initiatives to improve crowdworking 92 1.7 Over 2007-2010 a substantial number of trafficked victims were trafficked 4.1 Monetary valuation of unpaid care work 117 for sexual exploitation 45 4.2 Credits for long-term elder care in Japan 120 2.1 Progress on the Human Development Index since 1990 has been fairly 4.3 Paid parental leave,including mandatory paternity leave 123 steady over time and across all developing regions 西 5.1 The Sustainable Development Goals and human development 132 2.2 Between 199 and 2014 the number of people living in countries in higher 5.2 Transforming ship breaking:promoting sustainable work by implementing human development classifications rose,while the number of people living in standards 140 countries in the low human development classification fell 56 5.3 Implementing Tajikistan's National Programmen Application of 2.3 There is no automatic link between income and human development,2014 51 Renewable Energy Sources 143 2.4 Income poverty in Kyrgyzstan would be much higher without remittances 58 5.4 Big data:some applications for work and the Sustainable Development Goals 145 2.5 Disaggregated Human Development Index values can unmask national 6.1 National employment strategies 152 averages:Ethiopia 58 6.2 Self-employment programme of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 153 2.6 Children in South Africa are not only disproportionately poor,but also more 6.3 Labour standard to tackle informal economy-a new milestone 154 concentrated in the poorest households,2012 0 2.7 Access to basic social services in Moldova is unequal by rural-urban locale. 6.4 M-Pesa-an innovative approach to financial inclusion 155 2014 60 6.5 Remaining competitive by improving working conditions 156 2.8 East Asia and the Pacific had the greatest reduction in Human Development 6.6 Cambodia-a success story in the globalized world of work 157 Index shortfall among developing country regions over 1990-2014 60 6.7 Protecting the rights of sex workers 162 2.9 Rural areas of China have a higher prevalence of multidimensional poverty 6.8 The Self-Employed Women's Association-the world's largest trade union than urban areas,2012 62 of informal workers 164 2.10 Extent of human deprivations in the world 62 6.9 Rural Employment Opportunities for Public Assets in Bangladesh 166 2.11 The youth unemployment rate is highest in the Arab States,2008-2014 64 6.10 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India-a milestone 167 2.12 Around 80 percent of the world's people have just 6 percent of global 6.11 Chile's reforms to the reform:more solidarity,more contributions 168 wealth,2014 雪 6.12 How Montenegrins value tertiary education 169 2.13 In low human development countries the main driver of a high dependency 6.13 Bolsa Familia-Brazil's conditional cash transfer programme 170 ratio is a young population,2014 6.14 Suggested measures for reducing inequalities 170 2.14n1950 a third of the world's population lived in cities.in200 nearly half 6.15 Positive parental leave systems 172 were city dwellers and by 2050 more than two-thirds will be 67 viii HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015

SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS Building peace, restoring hope: women’s role in nation building — Leymah Gbowee 40 Working towards the elimination of child labour — Kailash Satyarthi 42 Inequality and labour markets — Robert Reich 66 Creative work — Orhan Pamuk 96 Central Asia: emerged region, emerging challenges and opportunities for women — Roza Otunbayeva 116 Community participation for improving rural livelihoods—lessons from the past — Maithripala Sirisena 134 Recyclers: from waste pickers to global agents of sustainable development — Nohra Padilla 138 Building skills and protecting workers for inclusive growth — Benigno S. Aquino III 158 BOXES 1 Human development—a comprehensive approach 2 2 Measuring human development 3 3 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 21 4 Flexicurity in Denmark 23 5 The four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 23 1.1 What is work? 30 1.2 Measures of quality of work 35 1.3 What brings happiness—having a job or something beyond it? 36 2.1 Uneven access to the digital revolution 59 2.2 Impact of long-term youth unemployment 64 2.3 Alternative measures of human well-being 72 3.1 An encapsulated history of work 78 3.2 The fourth industrial revolution 82 3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina—local development through outsourcing 85 3.4 Challenges for start-ups in the Arab States 92 3.5 Initiatives to improve crowdworking 92 4.1 Monetary valuation of unpaid care work 117 4.2 Credits for long-term elder care in Japan 120 4.3 Paid parental leave, including mandatory paternity leave 123 5.1 The Sustainable Development Goals and human development 132 5.2 Transforming ship breaking: promoting sustainable work by implementing standards 140 5.3 Implementing Tajikistan’s National Programme on Application of Renewable Energy Sources 143 5.4 Big data: some applications for work and the Sustainable Development Goals 145 6.1 National employment strategies 152 6.2 Self-employment programme of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 153 6.3 Labour standard to tackle informal economy—a new milestone 154 6.4 M-Pesa—an innovative approach to financial inclusion 155 6.5 Remaining competitive by improving working conditions 156 6.6 Cambodia—a success story in the globalized world of work 157 6.7 Protecting the rights of sex workers 162 6.8 The Self-Employed Women’s Association—the world’s largest trade union of informal workers 164 6.9 Rural Employment Opportunities for Public Assets in Bangladesh 166 6.10 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India—a milestone 167 6.11 Chile’s reforms to the reform: more solidarity, more contributions 168 6.12 How Montenegrins value tertiary education 169 6.13 Bolsa Família—Brazil’s conditional cash transfer programme 170 6.14 Suggested measures for reducing inequalities 170 6.15 Positive parental leave systems 172 6.16 Cash for care work 172 6.17 Gender policies in Norway 173 6.18 Turkey’s private sector initiative on overcoming skills mismatch at the local level 174 6.19 The “social wage” of work 176 6.20 Possible measures at the country level for moving towards sustainable work 177 6.21 Flexicurity in Denmark 180 6.22 Four pillars of the Decent Work Agenda 180 FIGURES 1 Work engages people all over the world in different ways 2 2 Work and human development are synergistic 3 3 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 6 4 Speed of adoption of new technologies in the United States 7 5 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 11 6 Women’s representation in senior management in business, by region, 2015 12 7 The matrix of sustainable work 14 8 Policy options for enhancing human development through work 17 9 Number of countries having ratified International Labour Organization conventions, 1990 and 2014 19 1.1 Work encompasses more than just jobs 31 1.2 Workers from countries with low pension coverage tend to stay in the labour market after age 65, while workers from countries with high pension coverage tend to retire earlier 32 1.3 Work and human development are synergistic 33 1.4 Corrosive and exploitative work shatters human development 41 1.5 Women and girls account for a larger share of forced labour than men and boys, 2012 41 1.6 Annual profits from forced labour have been highest in Asia and the Pacific since 2006 44 1.7 Over 2007–2010 a substantial number of trafficked victims were trafficked for sexual exploitation 45 2.1 Progress on the Human Development Index since 1990 has been fairly steady over time and across all developing regions 56 2.2 Between 1990 and 2014 the number of people living in countries in higher human development classifications rose, while the number of people living in countries in the low human development classification fell 56 2.3 There is no automatic link between income and human development, 2014 57 2.4 Income poverty in Kyrgyzstan would be much higher without remittances 58 2.5 Disaggregated Human Development Index values can unmask national averages: Ethiopia 58 2.6 Children in South Africa are not only disproportionately poor, but also more concentrated in the poorest households, 2012 60 2.7 Access to basic social services in Moldova is unequal by rural–urban locale, 2014 60 2.8 East Asia and the Pacific had the greatest reduction in Human Development Index shortfall among developing country regions over 1990–2014 60 2.9 Rural areas of China have a higher prevalence of multidimensional poverty than urban areas, 2012 62 2.10 Extent of human deprivations in the world 62 2.11 The youth unemployment rate is highest in the Arab States, 2008–2014 64 2.12 Around 80 percent of the world’s people have just 6 percent of global wealth, 2014 65 2.13 In low human development countries the main driver of a high dependency ratio is a young population, 2014 67 2.14 In 1950 a third of the world’s population lived in cities, in 2000 nearly half were city dwellers and by 2050 more than two-thirds will be 67 viii | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2015

2.15 Undemourishment and obesity rates vary by region,most recent year available 70 4.12 Men have more time for leisure and social activities than women do across 3.1 Although the importance of agriculture to economies may be dropping.the all human development groupings,most recent year available 119 importance of agriculture to workers,albeit declining.remains high 79 4.13 Grandparents often spend time caring for grandchildren,2006-2007 119 3.2 Adoption of new technologies in the United States has been impressively quick 82 4.14 The burden of elder care will rise much more quickly in China than in the 3.3 The change in technology penetration around the world between 1995 and 2015 United States 120 was substantial and holds promise to benefit people around the world 5.1 There is a strong positive association between energy consumption and the 3.4 The digital revolution has accelerated the global production of goods and Human Development Index for developing countries 136 services,particularly digital trade 5.2 The largest share of global employment in agriculture is in East Asia and 3.5 The digital component of global flows has increased-selected examples 88 South Asia 141 3.6 Opportunities for mobile applications for agriculture and rural development 89 6.1 More than 170 countries have ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention of 3.7 Mobile subscriptions and connections in Sub-Saharan Africa are predicted to 1951 and the Discrimination(Employment and Occupation)Convention of 1958 161 rise substantially between 2013 and 2020 % 6.2 By 2014.65 countries had laws prohibiting discrimination in employment 3.8 Between 1970 and 2014 the number of patents granted by the United States based on sexual orientation in at least part of their territory-more than triple Patent and Trademark Office increased almost fivefold 94 the number 15 years ago 162 3.9 Japan led the way in total number of patents granted in 2013 94 6.3 Globally.the same general labour law that covers other workers covers only 3.10 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 9 10 percent of domestic workers,2010 163 3.11 In the Netherlands and the United States productivity gains have not 6.4 The relationship between mean years of schooling and labour force participation for women shows a shallow U shape 171 translated into higher wages for the most part 100 3.12 The growth rate of productivity has not had the exceptional boost expected with the advent of the digital revolution 100 MAPS 3.13 Workers overall are getting a smaller share of total corporate income based 5.1 Fertilizer use varies widely 142 on analysis from 27 developed countries and 28 developing countries ⊙ 5.2 The employment potential of renewable energy is considerable 146 3.14 The income shares of high-skill labour have beengoing up.while the share of medium-and low-skill labour has been going down 101 TABLES 3.15 The sharp increase of work compensation to top salary eamers has benefited a minority.cumulative change since 1980 101 1 Sustainable Development Goals 15 4.1 Men dominate the world of paid work,and women the world of unpaid work 107 1.1 Employment rate of people with disabilities,low-and high-income countries 4.2 Women are less likely to be engaged in paid work,as shown by the labour A1.1 Work with exploitation,risks and insecurities 47 force participation rate 108 A1.2 Different types of employment 51 4.3 In 2015,72 percent of working-age (ages 15 and older)men were employed, 2.1 Gender Development Index values by region.2014 59 compared with 47 percent of women 109 2.2 Countries with the most people in multidimensional poverty 61 4.4 A large part of the wage gap between men and women is unexplained 110 2.3 Human Development Index and Inequality-adjusted Human Development 4.5 Women are underrepresented in senior business management across Index values for selected regions,2014 66 all regions,2015 111 A2.1 Balance sheet of human development 74 4.6 Women are less likely to occupy positions of leadership in public service,2014 111 4.1 Domestic workers in India by sector,2004-05(thousands) 115 4.7 Fewer women than men are represented among both early-stage and 4.2 Migrant domestic workers in Gulf Cooperation Council countries 115 established entrepreneurs.2014 112 A4.1 Time use 125 4.8 Across most parts of the world women are more likely to be in vulnerable 5.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and employment by sector 135 employment,2013 113 5.2 Coping with industrywide closures 139 4.9 In South Asia agriculture accounts for more than 60 percent of 5.3 Number of home solar systems installed and people without access to female employment 114 electricity(selected countries).various years 143 4.10 In rural Malawi women are more frequently unpaid,even when working 5.4 Jobs generated from clean energy 146 outside the home,2008 114 5.5 The demand for teachers 147 4.11 Women take the major burden of unpaid care work,most recent year available 118 5.6 The demand for health workers 148 A6.1 Status of fundamental labour rights conventions 182 Contents ix

2.15 Undernourishment and obesity rates vary by region, most recent year available 70 3.1 Although the importance of agriculture to economies may be dropping, the importance of agriculture to workers, albeit declining, remains high 79 3.2 Adoption of new technologies in the United States has been impressively quick 82 3.3 The change in technology penetration around the world between 1995 and 2015 was substantial and holds promise to benefit people around the world 83 3.4 The digital revolution has accelerated the global production of goods and services, particularly digital trade 87 3.5 The digital component of global flows has increased—selected examples 88 3.6 Opportunities for mobile applications for agriculture and rural development 89 3.7 Mobile subscriptions and connections in Sub-Saharan Africa are predicted to rise substantially between 2013 and 2020 89 3.8 Between 1970 and 2014 the number of patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office increased almost fivefold 94 3.9 Japan led the way in total number of patents granted in 2013 94 3.10 The 20 jobs most and least likely to be replaced by automation 99 3.11 In the Netherlands and the United States productivity gains have not translated into higher wages for the most part 100 3.12 The growth rate of productivity has not had the exceptional boost expected with the advent of the digital revolution 100 3.13 Workers overall are getting a smaller share of total corporate income based on analysis from 27 developed countries and 28 developing countries 101 3.14 The income shares of high-skill labour have been going up, while the share of medium- and low-skill labour has been going down 101 3.15 The sharp increase of work compensation to top salary earners has benefited a minority, cumulative change since 1980 101 4.1 Men dominate the world of paid work, and women the world of unpaid work 107 4.2 Women are less likely to be engaged in paid work, as shown by the labour force participation rate 108 4.3 In 2015, 72 percent of working-age (ages 15 and older) men were employed, compared with 47 percent of women 109 4.4 A large part of the wage gap between men and women is unexplained 110 4.5 Women are underrepresented in senior business management across all regions, 2015 111 4.6 Women are less likely to occupy positions of leadership in public service, 2014 111 4.7 Fewer women than men are represented among both early-stage and established entrepreneurs, 2014 112 4.8 Across most parts of the world women are more likely to be in vulnerable employment, 2013 113 4.9 In South Asia agriculture accounts for more than 60 percent of female employment 114 4.10 In rural Malawi women are more frequently unpaid, even when working outside the home, 2008 114 4.11 Women take the major burden of unpaid care work, most recent year available 118 4.12 Men have more time for leisure and social activities than women do across all human development groupings, most recent year available 119 4.13 Grandparents often spend time caring for grandchildren, 2006–2007 119 4.14 The burden of elder care will rise much more quickly in China than in the United States 120 5.1 There is a strong positive association between energy consumption and the Human Development Index for developing countries 136 5.2 The largest share of global employment in agriculture is in East Asia and South Asia 141 6.1 More than 170 countries have ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention of 1951 and the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention of 1958 161 6.2 By 2014, 65 countries had laws prohibiting discrimination in employment based on sexual orientation in at least part of their territory—more than triple the number 15 years ago 162 6.3 Globally, the same general labour law that covers other workers covers only 10 percent of domestic workers, 2010 163 6.4 The relationship between mean years of schooling and labour force participation for women shows a shallow U shape 171 MAPS 5.1 Fertilizer use varies widely 142 5.2 The employment potential of renewable energy is considerable 146 TABLES 1 Sustainable Development Goals 15 1.1 Employment rate of people with disabilities, low- and high-income countries 38 A1.1 Work with exploitation, risks and insecurities 47 A1.2 Different types of employment 51 2.1 Gender Development Index values by region, 2014 59 2.2 Countries with the most people in multidimensional poverty 61 2.3 Human Development Index and Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index values for selected regions, 2014 65 A2.1 Balance sheet of human development 74 4.1 Domestic workers in India by sector, 2004–05 (thousands) 115 4.2 Migrant domestic workers in Gulf Cooperation Council countries 115 A4.1 Time use 125 5.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and employment by sector 135 5.2 Coping with industrywide closures 139 5.3 Number of home solar systems installed and people without access to electricity (selected countries), various years 143 5.4 Jobs generated from clean energy 146 5.5 The demand for teachers 147 5.6 The demand for health workers 148 A6.1 Status of fundamental labour rights conventions 182 Contents | ix