第四节语用含义 一、语用含义的性质 (一)会话含义和语用含义! 会话是说话人和听话人在同一时空范围内共同进行的有一定 指向和意图的语用行为,具有时间同一性和空间限制性。 会话含义有两种:一般含义和特殊含义。一般含义是指从字 面意义中可以体会出来的,它不需要比较复杂的分析就能够 理解。 语用含义指的是特殊含义

第一节文字的性质和作用 一、文字的性质 (一)文字是记录语言的书写符号系统 1.文字是记录语言的。 2.录音机也记录语言,但它不是书写符号。 有些商品包装上有书写符号,但是它不记录语言。 3.上面这些是文字吗? 不是,因为文字是一个系统

本章概述 当代西方科学哲学主要是指以科学为研究对象的哲学。通常把波普尔之前 的诸科学哲学称作逻辑主义,其后的则为历史主义。实证主义是哲学史上头 一个打起“科学哲学”旗号的哲学流派但通常把实证主义、马赫主义、实用 主义、逻辑原子主义和逻辑实证主义以及流行于当代的日常语言学派,归属 于传统意义上的实证哲学、分析哲学或语言哲学。至于继波普尔之后的兴起 的历史主义学派和科学实在论,由于着重历史考察的方法,着重于科学本身 的探究,注重把哲学建立在科学知识和科学方法的基础之上,则归属于科学 哲学。这种科学哲学主要探讨科学理论的真理性标准或选择问题,以及科学 发展的模式问题,试图解释科学活动并为其提供方法论指导。本章主要介绍 的是波普尔哲学、历史主义学派、科学实在论和反科学实在论

图 图( Graph)是一种较线性表和树更为复杂的非线性结 构。在线性结构中,结点之间的关系是线性关系,除开 关系,同层上的每个结点可以和一层的零个或多个结 点(即孩子)相关,但只能和上一层的一个结点(即双 亲)相关(根结点除外)。然而在图结构中,对结点( 图中常称为顶点)的前趋和后继个数都是不加限制的, 即结点之间的关系是任意的。图中任意两个结点之间都 可能相关。由此,图的应用极为广泛,特别是近年来的 迅速发展,渗透到诸如语言学、逻辑学、物理、化学 、电讯工程、计算机科学以及数学的其它分支中

这一部分将简要论述我们所采用的研究方法。我们的首要任务是从历史事实 中归纳规律,揭示汉语语法发展的具体过程。但是要完成这一任务,必须有一个适 合描写汉语语法史的理论框架。尽管我们认为新近的历史语言学理论语法化最适 合于我们的研究目标,但是该理论的建立主要是基于对印欧语言历史发展的考察, 因此不能简单照搬,必须加以修正以适合汉语的情况

The Ontological argument The Question(and framework for answers) Does God exist? (We will be assuming a philosophical/theological conception of God as a perfect being-this god's perfections include: omnipotence, omniscience, and perfect goodness. Theist: Yes. God exists

24.00: Problems of Philosophy Prof. Sally Haslanger September 19, 2001 Evil and the Free Will Defense Review of the Problem 1)If God exists, she'd be OOG. [By hypothesis] )If an OOG being exists, there would be no evil. [from 1] 3)God exists. [Suppose]

Evidentialism(Clifford): \It is wrong abways, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence\ (p.113) Pragmatism(James): Faced with a genuine choice about what to believe, and where evidence does not decide the matter, we are free to decide it however we want. Oour passional nature not only lawfully may, but must, decide an option between propositions, whenever it is a genuine option that cannot by its nature be decided on intellectual grounds. (127) In the relevant cases, we are not

I. Racist Propositions Appiah distinguishes three importantly different ideas relevant to race and racism: Racialism: ...there are heritable characteristics, possessed by members of our species, that allow us to divide them into a small set of races, in such a way that all the members of these races share certain traits and tendencies with each other that they do not share with members of any other race. These traits and tendencies characteristic of a race constitute, on the racialist view, a sort of racial essence; and it is part of the content of racialism that the essential

ral questions that might arise concerning personal identity. When we ask\Who am I? we might be being we are, what our possiblities are, under what conditions\I\would continue to exist. We'll begin our discussionon n wonder what\makes us tick\, what we ultimately value, what matters to us. We might also be asking what sort personal identity with the latter set of questions Consider a parallel set of questions (Id) Under what conditions are baseball-events events in the same game? E. g, under what conditions are a