Arthur Kornberg (1918- ) of the U.S. produced DNA in a test tube. F. Sanger (1918- ) of Britain developed sequencing procedure for proteins, and later for DNA

Functions of Nucleotides RNA and DNA components serving as energy stores for future use in phosphate transfer reactions. These reactions are predominantly carried out by ATP

The term carbohydrate derives from the fact that many of them have a formula that can be simplified to (CH2O)n. Some of these compounds are chemically modified, however, and do not fit the formula due to the modification

Introduction A diverse group of water-insoluble (hydrophobic) compounds three types of lipids—storage or structural lipids, “bioactive” lipids

Biological Membranes and Transportpart II Passive transport: with the gradient – Water transport—aquaporins – Glucose transporters – Co-transport of chloride and bicarbonate Active transport: against the gradient – Transport ATPases – Ion channels

General introduction Ion channels G-protein coupled receptors Second messengers Tyrosine kinase receptors From plasma membrane to the nucleus: Regulation of gene expression Cytokine signaling Cell cycle Apoptosis

In vitro maturation of Xenopus oocytes and assay of maturation-promoting factor(MPF) Progesterone Sperm

ENZYMES ARE HIGHLY SPECIFIC Enzymes are highly specific both in the reaction catalyzed and in their choice of reactants, which are called substrales. An enzyme usually cata- lyzes a single chemical reaction or a set of closely related reactions. Side

Section M Nitrogen Metabolism M1. Nitrogen Fixation and Assimilation M2. Amino acid metabolism M3. The urea cycle M4. Hemes and chlorophylls

H protein synthesis H1 The genetic code H2 Protein synthesis(translation) in prokaryotes H3 Translation in eukaryotes H4 Protein targeting H5 Protein glycosylation