A ring that contains at least one heteroatom (an atom other than carbon) is called a heterocycle, and a substance based on a heterocyclic ring is a heterocyclic compound. Heterocyclic compounds containing N, O or S are by far the most common

More reactive than benzene toward electrophilic substitution NO2 An deactivating group Less reactive than benzene toward electrophilic substitution Ortho-para director Meta director

Phenols are like alcohols in being able to form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Phenols have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight. A modest solubility in water

Carbon’s ability to form strong covalent bonds to other carbon atoms is the single property of the carbon atom that — more than any other—accounts for the existence of a field of study called organic chemistry. Carbon’s ability to form as many as four strong bonds to other carbon atoms, and to form strong bonds to hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen atoms as well

Functional groups The structural features that make it possible to classify compounds by reactivity are called functional groups. A functional group is a part of a larger molecule and is composed of an atom or a group of atoms that have a characteristic chemical behavior. The Chemistry of every organic molecules

Energy and the Relative Stability Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion. Potential energy is stored energy. It exists only when an attractive or repulsive force exists between objects

The primary source of alkanes is petroleum Natural gas consists chiefly of methane, but ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane are also present. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that must be refined into different fraction before it can be used

Cycloalkanes with only one ring are named by attaching the prefix cyclo- to the names of the alkanes possessing the same number of carbon atoms

Isomers are different compounds that have the same molecular formula. Constitutional isomers are isomers that differ because their atoms are connected in a different order. Stereoisomers differ only in arrangement of their atoms in space.Stereoisomers are not constitutional isomers. Enantiomers are stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperposable mirror images of each other. Diastereomer are stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror images of each other

An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers is called a racemic form (either a racemate or a racemic mixture). A racemic form shows no rotation of plane￾polarized light