Academic Writing A practical guide for students Stephen Bailey RoutledgeFalmer Tavior 6 Francis Grour LONDON AND NEW YORK
Academic Writing A practical guide for students Stephen Bailey
Contents Introduction Part 1: The Writing Process Student introduction 1 1.Background to writing Writing Foundations 2.Developing plans from titles 3.Evaluating a text Reading and Note-Making 9 4.Understanding purpose and register 12 5.Selecting key points 6.No e-making 7.Paraphrasing 8.Summary writing 9.Combining sources 26 10.Planning a text Writing Stages 29 11.Organising paragraphs 12.Organising the main body 36 13.Introductions 14.Conclusion 15.Re-reading and re-writing 5 16.Proof-reading Student introduction 51 1.Cause and effect Flooding results from heavy rain 53 2.Cohesion The former/the latter 3.Comparisons His work is more interesting than hers 4.Definitions An assignment is a task given to students. 60 5.Discussior Benefits and drawbacks 6.Examples Many departments,for instance medicine, 7.Generalisations Computers are useful machines 8.Numbers The figures in the report. 9.Referencesand quotations As Donner(1997)pointed out 7 10.Style It is generally agreed that . 11.Synonyms Interpretation/explanation 9 12.Visual information Graphs,charts and tables
Introduction vi Part 1: The Writing Process 1 Student introduction 1 1. Background to writing Writing Foundations 3 2. Developing plans from titles 6 3. Evaluating a text Reading and Note-Making 9 4. Understanding purpose and register 12 5. Selecting key points 15 6. Note-making 18 7. Paraphrasing 21 8. Summary writing 23 9. Combining sources 26 10. Planning a text Writing Stages 29 11. Organising paragraphs 32 12. Organising the main body 36 13. Introductions 39 14. Conclusions 42 15. Re-reading and re-writing 45 16. Proof-reading 48 Part 2: Elements of Writing 51 Student introduction 51 1. Cause and effect Flooding results from heavy rain 53 2. Cohesion The former/the latter 55 3. Comparisons His work is more interesting than hers 57 4. Definitions An assignment is a task given to students . 60 5. Discussion Benefits and drawbacks 62 6. Examples Many departments, for instance medicine, 65 7. Generalisations Computers are useful machines 67 8. Numbers The figures in the report . 70 9. References and quotations As Donner (1997) pointed out 73 10. Style It is generally agreed that . 76 11. Synonyms Interpretation/e xpl anati on 79 12. Visual information Graphs, charts and tables 81 Contents
Contents Part 3: Accuracy in Writing s Student introduction 1.Abbreviations i.e./WTO 8 2.Adverbs currently/eventually 3.Articles a/an/the 4.Caution Poor education tends to lead to crime 93 5.Conjunctions furthermore/however 6.Formality in verbs speed up/accelerate 5 7.Modal verbs may/could/should 100 8.Nationality language Spain/Spanish 102 9.Nouns and adjectives efficiency/efficient 104 10.Nouns:countable and uncountable business/businesses 106 11.Passives The gases were discovered 108 12.Prefixesand suffixes undergraduate/graduate 110 13.Prepositions The purpose of this paper. 14.Prepositions after verbs concentrate on 115 15.Punctuation 117 16.Referring verbs Martins(1975)claimed that. 119 17.Relative pronouns that/which 18.Singular/plural The team is/are 19.Tenses Few scientists dispute/have disputed 125 20.Time words and phrases since the nineteenth century 128 Part 4: Writing Models 131 Student introduction 131 1. Formal letters Letter layout and letters of application 133 2 CVs Layout and phrasing of a curriculum vitae 135 Designingand reportingsurveys Survey reportsand questionnaire design 137 4 Comparison essay A comparison of classroom learning with internet-based teaching 139 5.Discursive essay Education is the most important factor in national development-Discuss 141 Writing Tests 143 Answers 146 Sources
vi Contents Part 3: Accuracy in Writing Student introduction 85 85 1. Abbreviations i.e./WTO 87 2. Adverbs currently/eventually 89 3. Articles a/an/the 91 4. Caution Poor education tends to lead to crime 93 5. Conjunctions furthermore/however 95 6. Formality in verbs speed up/accelerate 98 7. Modal verbs may/could/should 100 8. Nationality language Spain/Spanish 102 9. Nouns and adjectives efficiency/efficient 104 10. Nouns: countable and uncountable business/businesses 106 11. Passives The gases were discovered 108 12. Prefixes and suffixes undergraduate/graduate 110 13. Prepositions The purpose of this paper . 113 14. Prepositions after verbs concentrate on 115 15. Punctuation ‘ ? : 117 16. Referring verbs Martins (1975) claimed that . 119 17. Relative pronouns that/which 121 18. Singular/ plural The team is/are 123 19. Tenses Few scientists dispute/have disputed 125 20. Time words and phrases since the nineteenth century 128 Part 4: Writing Models 131 Student introduction 131 1. Formal letters Letter layout and letters of application 133 2. CVs Layout and phrasing of a curriculum vitae 135 3. Designing and reporting surveys Survey reports and questionnaire design 137 4. Comparison essay A comparison of classroom learning with internet-based teaching 139 5. Discursive essay Education is the most important factor in national development – Discuss 141 Writing Tests 143 Answers 146 Sources 191
Introduction Academic Writing is designed for anybody who is studying (or planning to study)at English-medium colleges and universities and has to write essays and oth er assignments for exams or co rsework.Internation students ofhdhewmite emands of neir courses extremel challenging. e 00 ary of a conventions in style,referencing and organisation Academic Writing is a flexible course that allows students to work either with a teacher or by themselves,to practise those areas which are most important for master.I s been made as simple as possible to allow The course is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice for students Skills are developed from writing at the paragraph level,through organising the various sections of an essay,to discussingstatistics and describing charts. This book is divided into four parts: 1)The Writing Process guides students from the initial stage of ndersta an oceau titlo thr oading and note making to the organisation of an essay and the final stage of proof-reading Elements of Writing deals with the key skills tha tare needed for all types s making definitions and giving references,and is 3)Accuracy in Writing gives remedial practice in those areas that students tend to find most confusing such as definite articles and relative pronouns.again in alphabetical order. 4)Writing Models gives examples of the types of writing that students commonly need,including letters and survey reports. All units are cross-referenced and a comprehensive key is provided at the end. There is also a Writing Tests section for assessing level and progress. Although every effort has been made to make academtic writing as useful and accurate as p ossible,if students orteachers have any comments,criticisms or suggestions I would be very pleased to hear from them. nc@beeb.net Instructions to students are printed like this: Complete the sentences with suitable words from the box below. Cross-references in margins look like this: 2.11 Synonyms This means:refer to the unit on synonyms in Part 2(Unit 11)
Instructions to students are printed like this: Complete the sentences with suitable words from the box below. Cross-references in margins look like this: This means: refer to the unit on synonyms in Part 2 (Unit 11). Academic Writing is designed for anybody who is studying (or planning to study) at English-medium colleges and universities and has to write essays and other assignments for exams or coursework. International students especially find the written demands of their courses extremely challenging. On top of the complexity of the vocabulary of academic English they have to learn a series of conventions in style, referencing and organisation. Academic Writing is aflexible course that allows students to work either with a teacher orby themselves, to practise those areas which are most important for their studies. Many students find that they have very limited time to prepare for their courses, and that writing is only one of several skills they need to master. The structure of the book has been made as simple as possible to allow users to find what they want quickly. The course is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice for students. Skills are developed from writing at the paragraph lev el, through organising the various sections of anessay, to discussing statistics and describing charts. This book is divided into four parts: 1) The Writing Process guides students from the initial stage of understanding an essay title, through reading and note-making, to the organisation of an essay and the final stage of proof-reading. 2) Elements of Writing deals with the key skills that are needed for all types of assignments, such as making definitions and giving references, and is organised alphabetically. 3) Accuracy inWriting gives remedial practice inthose areas that students tend to find most confusing, such as definite articles and relative pronouns, again in alphabetical order. 4) Writing Models gives examples of the types of writing that students commonly need, including letters and survey reports. All units are cross-referenced and a comprehensive key is provided at the end. There is also a Writing Tests section for assessing level and progress. Although every effort has been made to make Academic Writing as useful and accurate as possible, if students or teachers have any comments, criticisms or suggestions I would be very pleased to hear from them. Stephen Bailey academicwriting@beeb.net Introduction cross reference 2.11 Synonyms
1. The Writing Process Student Introduction Most academic courses in English-medium colleges and universities use essays to assess students both as coursework,for which a dead hCifwniagtsysorcousewotsigmenscanbeshown Understand essay title/requirements Assess reading texts-choose most appropriate Select relevant areasoftexts Keep record for reference Make notes on relevant areas, using paraphrasing&summarising skills Combine a variety of sources where necessary Select appropriate structure for esay/plan Organise&write main body Organise&rite Organise&write conclusion Critically read&re-write where necessary Final proof-reading Part 1,The Writing Process,examines each of these stages in turn.If y have epreferably in the ordergven.o 8股heR6so2】 academic writing.When practising making,for exar ple,it is should use the cross-reference boxes to look at the unit on References and Quotations in Part 2
Student Introduction Most academic courses in English-medium colleges and universities use essays to assess students’ work, both as coursework, for which a deadline one or two months ahead may be given, and in exams, when an essay often has to be completed in an hour. The process of writing essays for coursework assignments can be shown in a flowchart: Understand essay title/requirements Assess reading texts – choose most appropriate Select relevant areas oftexts Keep record for references Make notes on relevant areas, using paraphrasing & summarising skills Co m bine a varie ty of sources where necessary Select appropri ate structu re for essay/pl an Organise & write main body Organise & write introductio n Organise & write conclusion Critically read & re-write where necessary Final proof-reading Part 1, The Writing Process, examines each of these stages in turn. If students are concerned only with preparing for exam writing they could omit the reading and note-making stages, but if they have sufficient time they should work through every unit, preferably in the order given, for each stage builds on the previous one. Although it is essential to understand the basic writing process, at the same time it will be useful to be aware of the elements which contribute to good academic writing. When practising note-making, for example, it is helpful to be aware of the conventions of referencing, and so students should use the cross-reference boxes to look at the unit on References and Quotations in Part 2. 1. The Writing Process
Writing Foundations 3 1. Background to Writing Some of the terms used to describe different types of writing assignments can stude eed to be ar about the has oduction to these topics. c components 1.Students may havetoproduce various types ofwritten work as part of Complete the table to show the main purpose of the following,and their usual approximate length. Type Purpose Length letter for formal and infomma usually lessthan 500 communication words report hesis/dissertatior article/paper 2.Organisation of texts a)Explain the following terms in italic: Shorter texts,e.g essays,are normally organised in the form Introduction Main Body Conclusion Abstract Contents >Introduction Main Body Case Study Discussion Findings Conclusion Acknoiledgements Bibliography/References Appendices Books may also contain: Dedication >Foreword >Preface >Index b)Match the definitions below to one of the terms in (2a). Short summay(-00wordsofthe writer's purposeand ii)Section where various people who assisted the writer are thanked () ii)Final part where extra data,too detailed for the main text,are stored (.j iv)List of all the books that the writer has consulted v)Section looking at a particular example relevant to the main topic (.j vi)Introductory part of book which may give the writer's vii)Alphabetical listof all topics in the text （)
Writing Foundations 3 1. Students may have to produce various types of written work as part of their courses. Complete the table to show the main purpose of the following, and their usual approximate length. Type Purpose Length letter for formal and informal communication usually less than 500 words notes report project essay thesis/dissertation article/paper 2. Organisation of texts. a) Explain the following terms in italic: Shorter texts, e.g. essays, are normally organised in the form: Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include (depending on subject area): Abstract >Contents >Introduction > Main Body >Case Study > Discussion >Findings >Conclusion >Acknowledgements > Bibliography/References >Appendices Books may also contain: Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index b) Match the definitions below to one of the terms in (2a). i) Short summary (100–200 words) of the writer ’s purpose and findings (.) ii) Section where various people who assisted the writer are thanked (.) iii) Final part where extra data, too detailed for the main text, are stored (.) iv) List of all the books that the writer has consulted (.) v) Section looking at a particular example relevant to the main topic (.) vi) Introductory part of book which may give the writer ’s motives (.) vii) Alphabetical list of all topics in the text (.) 1. Background to Writing Some of the terms used to describe different types of writing assignments can be confusing. In addition, students need to be clear about the basic components of written texts. This unit provides an introduction to these topics
4 Part 1:The Writing Process 3.Other text features. Abbreviations are often used to save space: 2.9 References and Call Centres(CCs)feature prominentlyin the technology mix. Quotations 3.15 Punctuation Italicis used to show titles and words from other languages Where once the titles ofArmchair Theatre and The Wednesday Play celebrated. Squatter housing(called gecekondu in Turkish) Footnotes are used to indicate references at the bottom of the page: In respect of singapore the consensus is that the eovemment has made a difference.' Endnotes are givento showreferences at the end of the articleor chapter: The market for masonry construction may be divided intohousing and non-housing sectors [1] The research shows that the'pains of imprisonment'for women are. 4.All types of writing consist of a number ofkey elements Label the items in the text. a)THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION b)Introduction )I is generalyd that the Industrial Revolution began Britain durin develo nts in the ir ewhat aused this sudden increase in populations and the political and
4 Part 1: The Writing Process 3. Other text features. Abbreviations are often used to save space: Call Centres (CCs) feature prominently in the technology mix. Italic is used to show titles and words from other languages: Where once the titles ofArmchair Theatre andThe Wednesday Play celebrated. Squatter housing (called gecekondu in Turkish) . Footnotes are used to indicate references at the bottom of the page: In respect of Singapore the consensus is that the government has made a difference. 3 Endnotes are given to show references at the end of the article or chapter: The market for masonry construction may be divided intohousing and non-housing sectors[1] Quotation marks are used to draw attention to a phrase, perhaps because it is being used in an unusual or new way: The research shows that the ‘pains of imprisonment’ for women are. 4. Alltypes of writing consist of a number ofkey elements. Label the items in the text. a)THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION b)Introduction c)It is generally agreed that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the eighteenth century, with significant developments in the iron, steel and textile industries. But it is less clear what caused this sudden increase in production in key areas; different writers have examined the availability of capital, the growth of urban populations and the political and cross reference 3.1 Abbreviations 2.9 References and Quotations 3.15 Punctuation
Writing Foundations what is meant by e)Industry had existed for thousands ofyears prior to the eighteenth century,but before this time society as a whole remained agricultural.With of the iromrks and ole towns were dom c prodcd more food foreo 5.Why are alltexts divided intoparagraphs?Howlong are paragraphs? Organising Paragraphs ootodoe Read the follo INVESTMENT Most people want toinvest for the future,tocoverunexpected financialdifficultiesand provide them with rity,however,tend to have year-oldjustleavinguniversitywould be investingforthe long-term,whereasa60-year-old who had just retired wouldprobablyinvest forincome.Despite these differences, apply in most cases.The first issue to consider is risk.In general,the greater the degree ofrisk in investment,thehigher theretur.Shares for example,whichcan quicklyriseorfall invalue typically have a higher yield than bonds,which offer good security but payonly about 5%. Therefore all investorsmust decidehow muchrisk isappropriate in their particular situation Diversification must also be considered in an investment strategy.Wise investors usually seek tospread their investmentsacrossavarietyof geographical and predictions of the future are almost impossible,it is best to have as many options as possible. A further consideration is investorinvolvement.Some investorsopt for a high degree of involvement and want to buy and sell regularly,constantly watching the markets Others want to invest and then forget about it.Personal involvement can be time-consuming and worrying and many prefer to leave the management oftheir portfolios to professional fund managers
Writing Foundations 5 d ) religious climate. All of these may have played a part, but first it is necessary to consider the precise nature of what is meant by ‘Industrial Revolution’. e)Industry had existed for thousands of years prior to the eighteenth century, but before this time society as a whole remained agricultural. With the arrival of the ironworks and cotton mills whole towns were dominated by industrial activity. At the same time, agriculture itself went through significant changes which produced more food for the growing urban population. 5. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs? Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs. INVESTMENT Most people wanttoinvestforthe future,tocoverunexpectedfinancial difficultiesandprovide them with security. Different people, however, tend to have different requirements, so that a 25- year-oldjustleavinguniversitywouldbe investingforthe long-term,whereasa60-year-oldwho had just retiredwouldprobablyinvest forincome.Despite these differences, certainprinciples apply in most cases. The first issue to consider isrisk. In general,the greater the degree ofrisk in investment, the higher the return. Shares, for example,whichcan quicklyrise orfall invalue, typically have a higher yield than bonds, which offer good security but pay only about 5%. Therefore all investors must decide how muchrisk is appropriate intheir particular situation. Diversification must also be considered in an investmentstrategy.Wise investors usually seek to spread their investments across a variety of geographical and businesssectors. As accurate predictions ofthe future are almost impossible, it is best to have asmany options as possible. A further consideration is investor involvement. Some investors opt for a high degree of involvement and want to buy and sell regularly, constantl y watching the markets. Others want to invest and then forget about it. Personal involvement can be time-consu min g and worrying, and many prefer to leave the management oftheir portfoliosto professional fund managers. cross reference Organising Paragraphs Organising theMain Body
6 Part 1:The Writing Process 2.Developing Plans from Titles Most written work begins with a title,and students must be quite clear what question the title is asking before starting to plan the essay and read around the topic.This unit deals with analysing titles and making basic plans. 1.When preparingto write an essay,it is essential toidentify the main requirements ofthe title.Youmust be clear about what areas your teacher wants you to cover.This will then determine the organisation of the essay.For example: are of litte real world-Discuss Here the key word is discuss.Discussinginvolves examining the benefits and drawbacks of something. Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they are asking you to do. a)Define Information Technology (IT)and outline its main applications in medicine b)Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal systems of Britain and the USA c)Evaluate the effect of mergers in the motorindustry in the last ten years. d)Trace the development ofprimaryeducationin Britain.Illustrate some oftheissues currently facingthis sector. Note that most of the titles above have to terms in the title.You must decide ho h 2.The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles. Match the terms to the definitions on the right. Analyse Give a clear and simple account Describe Make a proposal and support it Examine Deal with a complex subject by giving the main points State Divide into sections and discuss each critically Suggest Giveadetailed account Summarise Look at the various parts and their relationships cross rererence 3.Almost all essays,reportsand articles have the samebasic pattern of organisation: Introduction Main body Conclusion do.In A plan for the first example might look like this:
6 Part 1: The Writing Process 1. When preparing to write an essay, it is essential to identify the main requirements of the title. You must be clear about what areas your teacher wants you to cover. This will then determine the organisation of the essay. For example: Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world – Discuss. Here the key word is discuss. Discussing involves examining the benefits and drawbacks of something. Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they are asking you to do. a) Define Information Technology (IT) and outline its main application s in medicine. b) Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal systems of Britain and the USA. c) Evaluate the effect of mergers in the motor industry in the last ten years. d) Trace the development ofprimaryeducationinBritain.Illustrate some ofthe issues currently facing this sector. Note that most of the titles above have two terms in the title. You must decide how much importance to give to each section of the essay (e.g. title (a) might demand 10% for the definition and 90% for the outline). 2. The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles. Match the terms to the definitions on the right. Analyse Give a clear and simple account Describe Make a proposal and support it Examine Deal with a complex subject by giving the main points State Divide into sections and discuss each critically Suggest Give a detailed account Summarise Look at the various parts and their relationships 3. Almost all essays, reports and articles have the same basic pattern of organisation: Introduction Main body Conclusion The structure of the main body depends on what the title is asking you to do. In the case of a discuss type essay, the main body is often divided into two parts, one looking at the advantages of the topic and the other looking at the disadvantages. A plan for the first example might look like this: 2. Developing Plans from Titles Most written work begins with a title, and students must be quite clear what question the title is asking before starting to plan the essay and read around the topic. This unit deals with analysing titles and making basic plans. cross reference 1.10 Planning a Text 2.5 Discussion
Writing Foundations 7 Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world-Discuss Introduction variety of different qualifications different methods of assessment Benefits international standards for professions e.e doctors students have chance to study latest theories qualifications lead to better salaries and promotion Drawbacks many essful people don't many qualified people don't have jobs Conclusion qualifications are useful but not guarantees of success 4.Write a plan for one of the titles in (1). title introduction main body conclusion 5.Teachers often complain thatstudentswrite essays thatdo not answer theauestion set. titles and decide which sections should be a)Describe the growth of the European Union since 1975 and suggest its likely form by 2010. A short account of European history 1900-2000 An analysis of candidates for membership before 2010 A discussion of the current economic situation in Europe An outline of the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and now b)Summarise the arguments in favour of privatisation and evaluate its record in Britain. A case study of electricity privatisation An analysis of less successful privatisations A study of major privatisations in the UK A discussion of the benefits achieved by privatisation
Writing Foundations 7 Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world – Discuss. Introductio n variety of different qualifications different methods of assessment Benefits internation al stand ard s for professio n s, e.g. doctors students have chance to study latest theories qualification s lead to better salaries and promotion Drawbacks many successful people don’t have qualification s many qualified people don’t have jobs Conclusion qualifications are useful but not guarantees of success 4. Write a plan for one of the titles in (1). title introduction main body conclusion 5. Teachers often complain that students write essays that do not answer the question set. Consider the following titles and decide which sections should be included in each essay. a) Describe the growth of the European Union since 1975 and suggest its likely form by 2010. A short account of European history 1900–2000 An analysis of candidates for membership before 2010 A discussion of the current economic situation in Europe An outline of the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and now b) Summarise the arguments in favour of privatisation and evaluate its record in Britain. A case study of electricity privatisation An analysis of less successful privatisations A study of major privatisations in the UK A discussion of the benefits achieved by privatisation c) Towhat extent is tuberculosis (TB) a disease of poverty? A definition of TB