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萧公 中國郎村 素 THIS BOOK IS A PRODUCT OF THE MODERN CHINESE HISTORY PROJECT RURAL CHINA CARRIED ON BY THE FAR EASTERN AND RUSSIAN INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY Imperial Control in the OF WASHINGTON.MEMBERS OF THE GROUP REPRESENT VARIOUS DISCI- Nineteenth Century BY PLINES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES.THE WORK OF THE PROJ- KUNG-CHUAN HSIAO ECT IS OF A COOPERATIVE NATURE WITH EACH MEMBER ASSISTING THE OTHERS 140CT19613 THROUGH CRITICAL DISCUSSION AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF IDEAS AND MA H6AP0RE◆ 1960 TERIAL.THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR EACH UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS STUDY RESTS WITH THE AUTHOR Seattle
PREFACE tstudy of the ratonale and effect of the ment during the nineteenth century.Owing to the limited availability of relevant information and my desire to bring this study to a close w时ithin a reasona toft均 as well as the rural inhabitants of its outlying regions are not con sidered.I hope,however,that despite the lacunae that remain,the esnltepresn ed here wi Iconvey a tolerably clear impression of m the e pe opulation.No discussion of Chinese his- tory or society can be adequate without taking into account the im pact of the government upon the millions that lived in the villages and he people exhi cularl A eb udy of rural China during this eriod veoof the forces and factor that contributed tthe cline of the imperial system and will perhaps also furnish useful clues ng t 118 opments ter ames rura e eteent centu d th ena observed: e contain a vartety of miscon tions and misin terpretations.The unresolved divergencies in interpretation that abound in some of th ese writings often prove be wildering to the read- er.There is a need for a m e syst日aC,re matter 1960 by the University of Washington Press present stud P Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:50-15803 Printed in the United States of America tem f the
vi Preface Preface inese hi lowest ad [mmore fortate than the his erial system has thus been neglected Ctrothe mhaitan t the that the writers of Chinese documents had anticipated some of our reacted to thatc of con problems and needs.Writers of the n cteenceryoteg iodthempteesofantaliainglnformtiontgoppeg torlcal environment infhu those that came under its sway,I have at- he matt trol and the behav e or less adequate view of the matter but comparable or matching records for aeohidesorperiodsareunavminblcanwther8 Owing partly to an actual dearth of material and partly to the amount of reco even at othe reader with only in this way can the plcture be are not rds towhich Ihad ac the with better defi. p focus to give an acc urate impress ails at laces hut with gans or areas of hazi ch has channeled my efforts into a historical 一amg实 ess at other To eo nsate for this defect and to guard against the following expedtients were sometimes na pro pts or inclusive to.Whenever possible,the localty and time of reality at a given time rather thar with ave tried to scrutinize each tion is indicat the 08 apprais of thee per set of facts fferent angles and in as many different uantity of data mit.And as the full significance of any insti ailing before or after the nineteenth cen was used to help fill some of the inevitable historical and social context,I have ofter Allowance for possible bia with matters that transcend eern or to allude to situatons that extend beyon riod under consideration. unt o officlals in SOURCES to to tone down or to white- esc8r e nineteenth century are rea tigation is not to be dispatched with as little thy.Bow to treat such materi- ments that involved matters of grav ae concerned might ,1he1 ater resr onsibilities than they had to conditions and doings did not as a rule es which furnished a good deal of indispensable in- Officials and scholars who ma iormaion,erewitenofteanthueerebiecri也ri8Co6y likely to repeat generalities these rec and sutrerings o of rural life.More dition pera than to portra over,the s of contributors.The loca abl ster from diverse Chinese the local officials who dictated the actual ectly serve my purpose.It has been said th ually be content w served only in fragments and written by men w ew nothing of the
Preface Preface as too ace to merit re ot their own.They were often inclined to interpret Chinese ways and points to the possibility of om institutions in terms of their own societal background;few of them on was escaped entirely the distorting effects of what may be called "cul. thaoold not be en tural appercept sbe dealing with geographical and re lated matters.Even there the data are too often inadequate and inac Westernitng than io ustng Chineseate curate.In many instances later ecitions of a gazetteer I used information relative to conditions prevailing later than the entries from editions compil nineteenth century when I felt that such information would shed light making nec nd without the reader of the ent to conncompe allor remote localities.a dearth of reliable g. sly there in rural life during the nineteenth century and in the derades of the twentieth do not appear to have been extensive or basic,any Private writings pos longed to the li egment of the t th e error that may result from inferring earler conditions from accounts e therefore similar to of later situations ld not materially affect the accuracy of the pic use of such accounts sparingly rnment documents and compiled and in Writing in a private capacity,they may well have only a few instances titers of pemmert doeu ACKNOWLEDGMENTS necessarily free agues in the Far Eastern and Russian In- the Ur ok part T have avoided using any writing that appears to be +v tybutadto do came my initial hesitanc using doubtful information and having no informati to undertake a challenging task and thus gave me an opportunity to the lesser of the two evils. The ta acquint myself witha field into which I had hitherto hadno more than checking such ma a casual glimpse.They offered me encouragement and advice at all for blases or distortions where these examine the c单s and as a result was often able to nk, were in China to witness happenings and co present the evidence in a more suitable way or formulate the conclu- bave furnished ey cm sions in a more careful manner.I alone,of course,am responsible lands with m the intimate for the shortcomings that still remain I am rge t nd ents with some hm re,being in a strange land where even items and to Giadys of everyday life demanded reflection,they were likely to discern sig- nificant facts that easily escaped the notice of native writers. to Mercedes MacDonald,who udertook the laborious task of checking stance the vivid descriptio the references,quotations,notes,and biblography and prepared the some Western writings would have been regar
Preface Kung-chuan Hsiao CONTENTS PART ONE:THE DIVISIONS OF RURAL AREAS 1.Villages,Markets,and Towns 3 2.Administrative Divisions:Pao-chia and Li-chia PART TWO:RURAL CONTROL 3.Polce Control:The Pao-chia System 名 4.Tax Collection in Rural Areas:The Li-chia System 4 5.Famine Control:She-ts'ang and'Other Granaries 144 1B4 PART THREE:THE EFFECTS OF CONTROL 7.The Effects of Control on the Village 261 8.The Clan and Rural Control 323 9.Rural Reactions to Control:I 371 10.Rural Reactions to Control:II 412 11.Summary and Postseript 501 Appendix I 521 AppendixⅡ 549 Appendix II 553 Notes 557 Table of Transliteration 733 Reigns and Emperors of the Ch'ing Dynasty 741
Contents Bibliography 743 Index 777 TABLES 1.Description of Villages in North China (over 1,000 Population Description of Villages in North China(100-199 Population) 18 3.Description of Small villages in North China (less than 100 Population) 4.Physical Aspects of Large and Small Villages in North 。 China 5.Rural Markets in Lu-Lung Hsien 20 Pao-Chia Arrangement in Ch'ing-Pien Pao-Chia Arrangement in Ch'ing-Pien Hsien Occurrences of Embezzlement 140 9.Revenue from Ti-Ting and Other Levies (in 1,000 taels) 141 10.Local Granaries in Lu-Chou Fu,1883 serves in Lu-Chou Fu 12.Status ot Hsiang-Yin Guests in Hsiang-Shan 211 13.Hsiang-Yin Guests in Nan-Ch'ang Hsien 212 14.Status of Hsiang-Yin Grand Guests in Nan-Ch'ang Hsien 15.Number of Hsiang-Yin Guests in Nan-Ch'ang Hsien 16.Hsiang-Yin Guests in Hsing-An 218 17.Hsiang-Yin Guests in Hsiang-Shan 218 18.Hsiang -Yin Guests in Jung-Hsien 19.Distribution of Funds for Six Sacrifices (in taels) 219 224 20.Temples in 35 Villages,Ting Chou (Chihli) 276 21.Genealogical Records of Eight Clans of Lo-Ch'uan (Shensi) 334 22.Ritual Land of Clans 23. Land Tenure and Ownership 383 24.Li-Chia Divisions and Their Variations 522 25.Li-Chia Arrangements,Szechwan 26.Number of Hu per T4, Ju-Lin Hsiang 27.Number of Li andT T'ao-yuan Hsien 28.Rural Divisions of T'eng Hsien,Kwangsi 538 29.Principal Changes in Granaries from Sui to Ch'ing Dynasties 30.Variation in Markets 856
xiv Tables 31.Rural Markets and Towns ● Part One THE DIVISIONS OF RURAL AREAS
ARRANGEMENT OF TU AND T'U Yen-yian Hsiang,Chekiar Each aquare represents approximately5 Chapter 1 ● LLAGES,MARKETS, AND TOWNS 49th Tu, 2d'u 五 51at Tu 52nd u, 2nd Tiu THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL 都1tu 四 Autocracies such as imperial China presuppose a sharp distinction 九 between rulers and subjects and a consequent divergence of interests between them.The first problem of an autocratic ruler is,therefore how to maintain firm control of his subjects so that he and his heirs may sit securely on the throne. 三國 The solution as it was worked out in China during the successive dynasties from Ch'in to Ch'ing consisted essentially in the develop- 513tu, ment of an administrative apparatus which helped the emperors to assure obedience and forestall rebellions,partly by ministering to 49th Tu,!49th Tu, 1t2"u the basic material needs of their subjects so that few of them would lst 2u \3rd Tiu be driven by unbearable hardships "to tread the dangerous path 十都 partly by inculcati in their minds carefully chosen precepts(mostly 相t拉Tu, from doctrines of the Confucian tradition)that tended to make them accept or acquiesce in the existing order,and partly by keeping con- stant surveillance over them so that "bad people"might b detected and dealt with in time.This administrative apparatus,reinforced at 國 strategic points by a military apparatus,made it possible for a single 十八都 dynasty to control a vast realm for a considerable period of time The basic principles contro I had undergone little modi- 47th 2u,lat 2ru fication over since the time of the first emperor of Ch'in.However as a result of accumulated experience and the ingenuity of some of the emperors of subsequent dynasties, refinements and imp rovements in the details of the adr strative apparatus s were introduced from time to time-generally in favor of increased centralization,more 48th Tu 50th Tu, minute regulations,stricter surveillance,and tighter control.When 2nd Tu lst Tu the Ch'ing dynasty established itself in 1644,it took over the sophistica highly ated system left behind by the defunct Ming dynasty,added further refinements of its own,and thus brought the imperial struc- ture to its final development.Understandably,to the Ch'ing rulers who were alien conquerors of China,the probl m of control was even more urgent than it had been to their immediate predecessors,who replaced the alien rule of Yuan with a native dynasty
Villages,Markets,and Towns 5 Rural China given to officials.even those with dwith the er under the emperor 一eocg ed that cluding the Grand Secretariat(ei-ko),the Grand Council (chi the ontire ,established in 1730),and the Six Boards to mention and a halt centuries of the Chinga only a few of the most important. Control of officialdom,however,was only part of the task.There ach decisions,and,assisted by was also the problem of keeping peace and order in the numerous cit carried out his orders or transmitted them to low- ble villages of the emp er administrative levels. at the sa Through a system of "local government the adn nistrative rulers to gain an administrative hold on the general pooulation.Shap the imperial gover ing this indispensable instrument in itself was no easy undertaking but to apply it effectively over the common people presented to the and districts (chow and asien,sometimes referrec ense geograp expanse of th empire and limited provincial administration,and was flanke of the majority of the (pu-cheng-shih)and a provino ficult vn to nted for ince(Chihli and Szechwan laws and decrees of the government, to say nothing of enoreing them were appointed);in other instances,a governor n out.The dist ict magistrate,who was suppo sed to directly to the people's need ad dictio general presided overwacof which had it The chief off al oi a pre the pre 11 re c the magistr the aver istrate for 100,000 inhabitants(calculated on the basis of the 1749 official figures)or 250,000(1819 official figures). verpors-general concerncd.The magis- The magistrate was so ove ourdened with a wide range of vaguely pre trates occupied the lowest level of the regular administrative hier 1a the ir little time or fac archy and were often described as "local off "officials in intima n was located ep al control.For instance the same thing may be said of a chex(town),where a submagistrate assisted the magistrate of the district to keep order. But it was a dif 41 every important post was shared by two or more situation in the open cod de that surround the rank and powers and,at the same tim hlaral areas high-ranking offic ial wa than one capacity.The officials took their duties seriously enough to attempt such contact fined pre ers and to over The imperial rulers did not allow this partial administrative vac- ap.The promotions,and dismissals of all local of uum to remai there had been group ings and divisions on a local scale and agents of the go reserved for the central government in Peking.These tun set up by t Ch e were as a rule not allowed to serve in the home prove