1.5.1 Civil Engineering Civil Engineering is generally considered the oldest engineering discipline-its works trace back to the Egyptian pyramids and before.Many of the skills possessed by civil engineering (e.g., building walls,bridges,roads)are extremely useful in warfare,so these engineers worked on both military and civilian projects.To distinguish those engineers who work on civilian projects from those who work on military projects,the British engineer John Smeaton coined the term civil engineer in about 1750. Ancient Egypt:From Engineer to God Egyptian civilization ascended from the Late Stone Age,around 3400 B.C.,with vigorous advancements in several engineering fields.While we can still see the spectacular construction feats of the Pyramid Age (3000-2500 B.C.),the ancient Egyptians also pioneered other engineering fields.As hydraulic engineers,they manipulated the Nile River for agricultural and commercial purpose;as chemical engineers,they produced dyes,cement,glass beer,and wine; as mining engineers,they extracted copper from the Sinai Peninsula for use in the bronze tools that built the pyramids. One of the key players of this period was Imhotep,known today as "The Father of Stone Masonry Construction."Imhotep served the pharaoh Zoser as chief priest,magician,physician, and head engineer.Most archaeologists credit Imhotep with designing and building the first pyramid,a stepped tomb for Zoser at Sakkara,around 2980 B.C.This pyramid consists of six stages,each 30 feet high,built from local limestone,and hewn with copper chisels.While only 200 feet high(the height of an 18-story building),this unique structure served as a prototype for the Great Pyramid at Giza,constructed 70 years later,which covers four city blocks in area and originally stood 480 feet high. Imhotep acquired an extensive reputation as a sage,and in later centuries was recognized as the Egyptian god of healing.Although Egyptian civilization saw great engineering progress during the Pyramid Age,2000 years of stagnation and decline followed. Civil engineers are responsible for constructing large-scale projects such as roads,buildings, airports,dams,bridges,harbors,canals,water systems,and sewage system. 1.5.2 Mechanical Engineering Mechanical engineering was practiced concurrently with engineering because many of the devices needed to construct great civil engineering projects were mechanical in nature.During the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850),wonderful machines were developed:steam engines, internal combustion engines,mechanical booms,sewing machines,and more.Here we saw the birth of mechanical engineering as a discipline distinct from civil engineering. ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND RELATED FIELDS Mechanical engineers make engines,vehicles (automobiles,trains,planes),machine tools (lathers,mills),heat exchangers,industrial process equipment,power plants,consumer items (typewriters,pens),and systems for heating,refrigeration,air conditioning,and ventilation. Mechanical engineers must know structures,heat transfer,fluid mechanics,materials,and thermodynamics,among many other things. 1.5.3 Electrical Engineering Soon after physicists began to understand electricity,the electrical engineering profession was
1.5.1 Civil Engineering Civil Engineering is generally considered the oldest engineering discipline—its works trace back to the Egyptian pyramids and before. Many of the skills possessed by civil engineering (e.g., building walls, bridges, roads) are extremely useful in warfare, so these engineers worked on both military and civilian projects. To distinguish those engineers who work on civilian projects from those who work on military projects, the British engineer John Smeaton coined the term civil engineer in about 1750. Ancient Egypt: From Engineer to God Egyptian civilization ascended from the Late Stone Age, around 3400 B.C., with vigorous advancements in several engineering fields. While we can still see the spectacular construction feats of the Pyramid Age (3000-2500 B.C.), the ancient Egyptians also pioneered other engineering fields. As hydraulic engineers, they manipulated the Nile River for agricultural and commercial purpose; as chemical engineers, they produced dyes, cement, glass beer, and wine; as mining engineers, they extracted copper from the Sinai Peninsula for use in the bronze tools that built the pyramids. One of the key players of this period was Imhotep, known today as “The Father of Stone Masonry Construction.” Imhotep served the pharaoh Zoser as chief priest, magician, physician, and head engineer. Most archaeologists credit Imhotep with designing and building the first pyramid, a stepped tomb for Zoser at Sakkara, around 2980 B.C. This pyramid consists of six stages, each 30 feet high, built from local limestone, and hewn with copper chisels. While only 200 feet high (the height of an 18 –story building), this unique structure served as a prototype for the Great Pyramid at Giza, constructed 70 years later, which covers four city blocks in area and originally stood 480 feet high. Imhotep acquired an extensive reputation as a sage, and in later centuries was recognized as the Egyptian god of healing. Although Egyptian civilization saw great engineering progress during the Pyramid Age, 2000 years of stagnation and decline followed. Civil engineers are responsible for constructing large-scale projects such as roads, buildings, airports, dams, bridges, harbors, canals, water systems, and sewage system. 1.5.2 Mechanical Engineering Mechanical engineering was practiced concurrently with engineering because many of the devices needed to construct great civil engineering projects were mechanical in nature. During the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850), wonderful machines were developed: steam engines, internal combustion engines, mechanical booms, sewing machines, and more. Here we saw the birth of mechanical engineering as a discipline distinct from civil engineering. ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND RELATED FIELDS Mechanical engineers make engines, vehicles (automobiles, trains, planes), machine tools (lathers, mills), heat exchangers, industrial process equipment, power plants, consumer items (typewriters, pens), and systems for heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, and ventilation. Mechanical engineers must know structures, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, materials, and thermodynamics, among many other things. 1.5.3 Electrical Engineering Soon after physicists began to understand electricity, the electrical engineering profession was
born.Electricity has severed two main functions in society:the transmission of power and of information.Those electrical engineers who specialize in power transmission design and build electric generators,transformers,electric motors,and other high-power equipment.Those who specialize in information transmission design and build radios,televisions,computers,antennae, instrumentation,controllers,and communications equipment. Electronic equipment can be analog (meaning the voltages and currents in device are continuous values)or digital(meaning only discrete voltages and currents can be attained by the device).As analog equipment is more susceptible to noise and interference than digital equipment,many electrical engineers specialize in digital circuits. Modern life is largely characterized by electronic equipment.Daily,we rely on many electronic devices-televisions,telephones,computers,calculators,and so on.In the future,the number and variety of these devices can only increase.The fact that electrical engineering is the largest discipline -comprising over 25%of all engineers -underscores the importance of electrical engineering in modern society. 1.5.4 Chemical Engineering By 1880,the chemical industry was becoming important in the U.S.economy.At that time,the chemical industry hired two types of technical persons:mechanical engineers and industrial chemists.The chemical engineer combined these two persons into one.The first chemical engineering degree was offered at the Massachusetts institute of Technology(MIT)in 1888. Chemical engineering is characterized by a concept called unit operations.A unit operation is an individual piece of process equipment (chemical reactor,heat exchanger,pump,compressor, distillation column).Just as electrical engineers assemble complex circuits from components parts(resistors,capacitors,inductors,batteries),chemical engineers assemble chemical plants by combining unit operations together. Chemical engineers process raw materials (petroleum,coal,ores,corn,trees)into refined products(gasoline,heating oil,plastics,and pharmaceuticals,paper).Biochemical engineering is a growing subdiscipline of chemical engineering.Biochemical engineers combine biological processes with traditional chemical engineering to produce food and pharmaceuticals and to treat wastes. 1.5.5 Industrial Engineering In the late 1800s,industries began to use "scientific management"techniques to improve efficiency.Early pioneers in this field did time-motion studies on workers to reduce the amount of labor required a product.Today,industrial engineers develop,design,install,and operate integrated systems of people,machinery,and information to produce either goods or services. Industrial engineers bridge engineering and management. Industrial engineers are famous for designing and operating assembly lines that optimally combine machinery and people.However,they can also optimize train or plane schedules, hospital operations,banks,or overweight package delivery services.Industrial engineers who specialize in human factors design products (e.g.,hand tools,airplane cockpits)with the human user in mind. 1.5.6 Aerospace Engineering
born. Electricity has severed two main functions in society: the transmission of power and of information. Those electrical engineers who specialize in power transmission design and build electric generators, transformers, electric motors, and other high-power equipment. Those who specialize in information transmission design and build radios, televisions, computers, antennae, instrumentation, controllers, and communications equipment. Electronic equipment can be analog (meaning the voltages and currents in device are continuous values) or digital (meaning only discrete voltages and currents can be attained by the device). As analog equipment is more susceptible to noise and interference than digital equipment, many electrical engineers specialize in digital circuits. Modern life is largely characterized by electronic equipment. Daily, we rely on many electronic devices—televisions, telephones, computers, calculators, and so on. In the future, the number and variety of these devices can only increase. The fact that electrical engineering is the largest discipline — comprising over 25% of all engineers — underscores the importance of electrical engineering in modern society. 1.5.4 Chemical Engineering By 1880, the chemical industry was becoming important in the U.S. economy. At that time, the chemical industry hired two types of technical persons: mechanical engineers and industrial chemists. The chemical engineer combined these two persons into one. The first chemical engineering degree was offered at the Massachusetts institute of Technology (MIT) in 1888. Chemical engineering is characterized by a concept called unit operations. A unit operation is an individual piece of process equipment (chemical reactor, heat exchanger, pump, compressor, distillation column). Just as electrical engineers assemble complex circuits from components parts (resistors, capacitors, inductors, batteries), chemical engineers assemble chemical plants by combining unit operations together. Chemical engineers process raw materials (petroleum, coal, ores, corn, trees) into refined products (gasoline, heating oil, plastics, and pharmaceuticals, paper). Biochemical engineering is a growing subdiscipline of chemical engineering. Biochemical engineers combine biological processes with traditional chemical engineering to produce food and pharmaceuticals and to treat wastes. 1.5.5 Industrial Engineering In the late 1800s, industries began to use “scientific management” techniques to improve efficiency. Early pioneers in this field did time-motion studies on workers to reduce the amount of labor required a product. Today, industrial engineers develop, design, install, and operate integrated systems of people, machinery, and information to produce either goods or services. Industrial engineers bridge engineering and management. Industrial engineers are famous for designing and operating assembly lines that optimally combine machinery and people. However, they can also optimize train or plane schedules, hospital operations, banks, or overweight package delivery services. Industrial engineers who specialize in human factors design products (e.g., hand tools, airplane cockpits) with the human user in mind. 1.5.6 Aerospace Engineering
Aerospace engineers design vehicles that operate in the atmosphere and in space.It is a diverse and rapidly changing field that includes four major technology areas:aerodynamics,structures and materials,flight and orbital mechanics and control,and propulsion.Aerospace engineers help design and build high-performance flight vehicles(e.g.,aircraft,missiles,and spacecraft)as well as automobiles.Also,aerospace engineers confront problems associated with wind effects on buildings,air pollution,and other atmosphere phenomena. 1.5.7 Material Engineering Material engineers are concerned with obtaining the materials required by modern society. Material engineers may be further classified as: Geological engineers,who study rocks,soils,and geological formations to find valuable ores and petroleum reserves. Mining engineers,who extract ores such as coal,iron,and tin. Petroleum engineers,who find,produce,and transport oil and natural gas. Ceramic engineers,who produce ceramic (i.e.,nonmetallic mineral)products. Plastics engineers,who produce plastic products. Metallurgical engineers,who produce metal products from ores or create metal alloys with superior properties. Material science engineers,who study the fundamental science behind the properties(e.g., strength,corrosion resistance,conductivity)of material. 1.5.8 Agricultural Engineering Agricultural engineering help farmers efficiently produce food and fiber.This discipline was born with the McCormick reaper.Since then,agricultural engineers have developed many other farm implements (tractors,plows,choppers,etc.)to reduce farm labor requirements.Modern agriculture engineers apply knowledge of mechanics,hydrology,computers,electronics, chemistry,and biology to solve agricultural problems.Agricultural engineers may specialize in: food and biochemical engineering;water and environmental quality;machine and energy systems;and food,feed,and fiber processing. 1.5.9 Nuclear Engineering Nuclear engineers design systems that employ nuclear energy,such as nuclear power plants, nuclear ships (e.g.,submarines and aircraft carriers),and unclear spacecraft.Some nuclear engineers are involved with nuclear medicine;other are working on the design of fusion reactors that potentially will generate limitless energy with minimal environmental damage. 1.5.10 Architectural Engineering Architectural engineers combine the engineer's knowledge of structures,materials,and acoustics with the architect's knowledge of building esthetics and functionality. 1.5.11 Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineers combine traditional engineering fields(mechanical,electrical,chemical, and industrial)with medicine and human physiology.They develop prosthetic devices (e.g., artificial limbs),artificial kidneys,pacemakers,and artificial hearts.Recent developments will
Aerospace engineers design vehicles that operate in the atmosphere and in space. It is a diverse and rapidly changing field that includes four major technology areas: aerodynamics, structures and materials, flight and orbital mechanics and control, and propulsion. Aerospace engineers help design and build high-performance flight vehicles (e.g., aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft) as well as automobiles. Also, aerospace engineers confront problems associated with wind effects on buildings, air pollution, and other atmosphere phenomena. 1.5.7 Material Engineering Material engineers are concerned with obtaining the materials required by modern society. Material engineers may be further classified as: · Geological engineers, who study rocks, soils, and geological formations to find valuable ores and petroleum reserves. · Mining engineers, who extract ores such as coal, iron, and tin. · Petroleum engineers, who find, produce, and transport oil and natural gas. · Ceramic engineers, who produce ceramic (i.e., nonmetallic mineral) products. · Plastics engineers, who produce plastic products. · Metallurgical engineers, who produce metal products from ores or create metal alloys with superior properties. · Material science engineers, who study the fundamental science behind the properties (e.g., strength, corrosion resistance, conductivity) of material. 1.5.8 Agricultural Engineering Agricultural engineering help farmers efficiently produce food and fiber. This discipline was born with the McCormick reaper. Since then, agricultural engineers have developed many other farm implements (tractors, plows, choppers, etc.) to reduce farm labor requirements. Modern agriculture engineers apply knowledge of mechanics, hydrology, computers, electronics, chemistry, and biology to solve agricultural problems. Agricultural engineers may specialize in: food and biochemical engineering; water and environmental quality; machine and energy systems; and food, feed, and fiber processing. 1.5.9 Nuclear Engineering Nuclear engineers design systems that employ nuclear energy, such as nuclear power plants, nuclear ships (e.g., submarines and aircraft carriers), and unclear spacecraft. Some nuclear engineers are involved with nuclear medicine; other are working on the design of fusion reactors that potentially will generate limitless energy with minimal environmental damage. 1.5.10 Architectural Engineering Architectural engineers combine the engineer’s knowledge of structures, materials, and acoustics with the architect’s knowledge of building esthetics and functionality. 1.5.11 Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineers combine traditional engineering fields (mechanical, electrical, chemical, and industrial) with medicine and human physiology. They develop prosthetic devices (e.g., artificial limbs), artificial kidneys, pacemakers, and artificial hearts. Recent developments will
enable some deaf people to hear and some blind people to see.Biomedical engineers can work in hospitals as clinical engineers,in medical centers as medical researchers,in medical industries designing clinical devices,in the FDA evaluating medical devices,or as physicians providing health care. 1.5.12 Computer Science and Engineering Computer science and engineering evolved from electrical engineering.Computer scientists understand both computer software and hardware,but they emphasize software.In contrast, computer engineers understand both computer software and hardware but emphasize hardware. Computer scientists and engineers design and build computers ranging from supercomputers to personal computers,network computers together,write operating system software that regulates computer functions,or write applications software such as word processors and spreadsheets.Given the increasingly important role of computers in modern society,computer science and engineering are rapidly growing professions. 1.5.13 Engineering Technology Engineering technologists bridge the gap between engineers and technicians.Engineering technologists typically receive a 4-year BS degree and share many courses with their engineering cousins.Their course work evenly emphasizes both theory and hands-on applications,whereas the engineering disciplines described above primarily emphasize theory with less emphasis on hands-on applications.Engineering technologists can acquire specialties such as general electronics,computers,and mechanics.With their skills,engineering technologists perform such functions as designing and building electronic circuits,repairing faulty circuits,maintaining computers,and programming numerically controlled machine shop equipment. 1.5.14 Engineering Technicians Engineering technicians typically receive a 2-year associate's degree.Their education primarily emphasizes hands-on applications with a minimum of theory.Their work is often directed by engineers.Because they have little theoretical background,their assigned tasks must be well defined,such as drafting,taking laboratory data,analyzing data according to prescribed procedures,and constructing electronic circuits designed by someone else. 1.5.15 Artisans Artisans often receive no formal schooling beyond high school.Typically,they learn their skills by apprenticing with experienced artisans who show them the "tricks of the trade."Artisans have a variety of manual skills such as machining,welding,carpentry,and equipment operation.Artisans are generally responsible for transforming engineering ideas into reality;therefore,engineers often must work closely with them.Wise engineers highly value the opinions of artisans frequently have many years of practical experience
enable some deaf people to hear and some blind people to see. Biomedical engineers can work in hospitals as clinical engineers, in medical centers as medical researchers, in medical industries designing clinical devices, in the FDA evaluating medical devices, or as physicians providing health care. 1.5.12 Computer Science and Engineering Computer science and engineering evolved from electrical engineering. Computer scientists understand both computer software and hardware, but they emphasize software. In contrast, computer engineers understand both computer software and hardware but emphasize hardware. Computer scientists and engineers design and build computers ranging from supercomputers to personal computers, network computers together, write operating system software that regulates computer functions, or write applications software such as word processors and spreadsheets. Given the increasingly important role of computers in modern society, computer science and engineering are rapidly growing professions. 1.5.13 Engineering Technology Engineering technologists bridge the gap between engineers and technicians. Engineering technologists typically receive a 4-year BS degree and share many courses with their engineering cousins. Their course work evenly emphasizes both theory and hands-on applications, whereas the engineering disciplines described above primarily emphasize theory with less emphasis on hands-on applications. Engineering technologists can acquire specialties such as general electronics, computers, and mechanics. With their skills, engineering technologists perform such functions as designing and building electronic circuits, repairing faulty circuits, maintaining computers, and programming numerically controlled machine shop equipment. 1.5.14 Engineering Technicians Engineering technicians typically receive a 2-year associate’s degree. Their education primarily emphasizes hands-on applications with a minimum of theory. Their work is often directed by engineers. Because they have little theoretical background, their assigned tasks must be well defined, such as drafting, taking laboratory data, analyzing data according to prescribed procedures, and constructing electronic circuits designed by someone else. 1.5.15 Artisans Artisans often receive no formal schooling beyond high school. Typically, they learn their skills by apprenticing with experienced artisans who show them the “tricks of the trade.” Artisans have a variety of manual skills such as machining, welding, carpentry, and equipment operation. Artisans are generally responsible for transforming engineering ideas into reality; therefore, engineers often must work closely with them. Wise engineers highly value the opinions of artisans frequently have many years of practical experience
1.10 TRAITS OF A SUCCESSEFUL ENGINEER All of us would like to be successful in our engineering careers,because it brings personal fulfillment and financial reward.(For most engineers,financial reward is not the highest priority. Surveys of practicing engineers show that they value exciting and challenging work performed in a pleasant work environment over monetary compensation.)As s student,you may feel that performing well in your engineering courses will guarantee success in the real engineering world. Unfortunately,there are no guarantees in life.Ultimate success is achieved by mastering many traits,of which academic prowess is but one.By mastering the following traits,you will increase your chances of achieving a successful engineering career: Interpersonal skills.Engineers are typically employed in industry where success is necessarily a group effort.Successful engineers have good interpersonal skills.Not only must they effectively communicate with other highly educated engineers,but also with artisans,who may have substantially less education,or other professionals who are highly educated in other fields (marketing,finance,psychology,etc.). Communication skills.Although the engineering curriculum emphasizes science and mathematics,some practicing engineers report that they spend up to 80%of their time in oral and written communications.Engineers generate engineering drawings or sketches to describe a new product,be it a machine part,an electronic circuit,or a crude flowchart of new computer code.They document test results in reports.They write memos,manuals,proposals to bid on jobs,and technical papers for trade journals.They give sales presentations to potential clients and make oral presentations at technical meetings.They communicate with the workers who actually build the devices designed by engineers.They speak at civic groups to educate the public about the impact of their plant on the local economy,or address safety concerns raised by the public. Leadership.Leadership is one of most desired skills for success.Good engineering leaders do not follow the herd;rather,they assess the situation and develop a plan to meet the group's objectives.Part of develop good leadership skills is learning how to be a good followers as well. Competence.Engineers are hired for their knowledge.If their knowledge is faulty,they are of little value to their employer.Performing well in your engineering courses will improve your competence. Logical thinking.Successful engineers base decisions on reason rather than emotions. Mathematics and science,which are based upon logic and experimentation,provide the foundations of our profession. Quantitative thinking.Engineering education emphasizes quantitative skills.We transform qualitative ideas into quantitative mathematical models that we use to make informed decisions. Follow-through.Many engineering projects take years or decades to complete.Engineers have to stay motivated and carry a project through to completion.People who need immediate gratification may be frustrated in many engineering projects. Continuing education.An undergraduate engineering education is just the beginning of a lifetime of learning.It is impossible for your professors to teach all relevant current knowledge in a 4-year curriculum.Also,over your 40-plus-year career,knowledge will expand dramatically. Unless you stay current,you will quickly become obsolete. Maintaining a professional library.Throughout your formal education,you will be required to
1.10 TRAITS OF A SUCCESSEFUL ENGINEER All of us would like to be successful in our engineering careers, because it brings personal fulfillment and financial reward. (For most engineers, financial reward is not the highest priority. Surveys of practicing engineers show that they value exciting and challenging work performed in a pleasant work environment over monetary compensation.) As s student, you may feel that performing well in your engineering courses will guarantee success in the real engineering world. Unfortunately, there are no guarantees in life. Ultimate success is achieved by mastering many traits, of which academic prowess is but one. By mastering the following traits, you will increase your chances of achieving a successful engineering career: ·Interpersonal skills. Engineers are typically employed in industry where success is necessarily a group effort. Successful engineers have good interpersonal skills. Not only must they effectively communicate with other highly educated engineers, but also with artisans, who may have substantially less education, or other professionals who are highly educated in other fields (marketing, finance, psychology, etc.). · Communication skills. Although the engineering curriculum emphasizes science and mathematics, some practicing engineers report that they spend up to 80% of their time in oral and written communications. Engineers generate engineering drawings or sketches to describe a new product, be it a machine part, an electronic circuit, or a crude flowchart of new computer code. They document test results in reports. They write memos, manuals, proposals to bid on jobs, and technical papers for trade journals. They give sales presentations to potential clients and make oral presentations at technical meetings. They communicate with the workers who actually build the devices designed by engineers. They speak at civic groups to educate the public about the impact of their plant on the local economy, or address safety concerns raised by the public. ·Leadership. Leadership is one of most desired skills for success. Good engineering leaders do not follow the herd; rather, they assess the situation and develop a plan to meet the group’s objectives. Part of develop good leadership skills is learning how to be a good followers as well. ·Competence. Engineers are hired for their knowledge. If their knowledge is faulty, they are of little value to their employer. Performing well in your engineering courses will improve your competence. · Logical thinking. Successful engineers base decisions on reason rather than emotions. Mathematics and science, which are based upon logic and experimentation, provide the foundations of our profession. · Quantitative thinking. Engineering education emphasizes quantitative skills. We transform qualitative ideas into quantitative mathematical models that we use to make informed decisions. ·Follow-through. Many engineering projects take years or decades to complete. Engineers have to stay motivated and carry a project through to completion. People who need immediate gratification may be frustrated in many engineering projects. · Continuing education. An undergraduate engineering education is just the beginning of a lifetime of learning. It is impossible for your professors to teach all relevant current knowledge in a 4-year curriculum. Also, over your 40-plus-year career, knowledge will expand dramatically. Unless you stay current, you will quickly become obsolete. ·Maintaining a professional library. Throughout your formal education, you will be required to
purchase textbooks.Many students sell them after the course is completed.If that book contains useful information related to your career,it is foolish to sell it.Your textbook should become personalized references with appropriate underlining and notes in the margins that allow you to quickly regain the knowledge years after when you need it.Once you graduate,you should continue purchasing handbooks and specialized books related to your field.Recall that you will be employed for your knowledge,and books are the most ready source of that knowledge. Dependability.Many industries operate with deadlines.As a student,you also have many deadlines for homework,reports,tests and so forth.If you hand homework and reports in late, you are developing bad habits that will not serve you well in industry. Honesty.As much as technical skills are valued in industry,honesty is valued more.An employee who cannot be trusted is of no use to a company. Organization.Many engineering projects are extremely complex.Think of all the details that bad to be coordinated to construct your engineering building.It is composed of thousands of components (beams,ducting,electrical wiring,windows,lights,computer networks,doors,etc.). Because they interact,all those components had to be designed in a coordinated fashion.They had to be ordered from vendors and delivered to the construction site sequentially when they were required.The activities of the contractors had to coordinate to install each item when it arrived.The engineers had to be organized to construct the building on time and within budget. Common sense.There are many commonsense aspects of engineering that cannot be taught in the classroom.A lack of common sense can be disastrous.For example,a library was recently built that required pilings to support it on soft ground.(A piling is a vertical rod,generally made from concrete that goes deep into the ground to support the building that rests on it).Their engineers very carefully and meticulously designed their pilings to support the weight of the building,as they had done many times before.Although the pilings were sufficient to hold the building,the engineers neglected the weight of books in the library.The pilings were insufficient to carry this additional load,so the library is now slowly sinking into the ground. Curiosity.Engineers must constantly learn and attempt to understand the world.A successful engineer is always asking,why? Involvement in the community.Engineers benefit themselves and their community by being involved with clubs and organizations (Kiwanis,Rotary,etc.).These organizations provided useful community services and also serve as networks for business contacts. Creativity.From their undergraduate studies,it is easy for engineering students to get a false impression that engineering is not creative.Most courses emphasize analysis,in which a problem has already been defined and the "correct"answer is being sought.Although analysis is extremely important in engineering,most engineers also employ synthesis,the act of creatively combining smaller parts to form a whole.Synthesis is essential to design,which usually starts with a loosely defined problem for which there are many possible solutions.The creative engineering challenge is to find the best solution to satisfy the project goals(low cost,reliability, functionality,etc.).Many of the technical challenge facing society can be met only with creativity. For if the solutions were obvious,the problems would already be solved
purchase textbooks. Many students sell them after the course is completed. If that book contains useful information related to your career, it is foolish to sell it. Your textbook should become personalized references with appropriate underlining and notes in the margins that allow you to quickly regain the knowledge years after when you need it. Once you graduate, you should continue purchasing handbooks and specialized books related to your field. Recall that you will be employed for your knowledge, and books are the most ready source of that knowledge. · Dependability. Many industries operate with deadlines. As a student, you also have many deadlines for homework, reports, tests and so forth. If you hand homework and reports in late, you are developing bad habits that will not serve you well in industry. · Honesty. As much as technical skills are valued in industry, honesty is valued more. An employee who cannot be trusted is of no use to a company. ·Organization. Many engineering projects are extremely complex. Think of all the details that bad to be coordinated to construct your engineering building. It is composed of thousands of components (beams, ducting, electrical wiring, windows, lights, computer networks, doors, etc.). Because they interact, all those components had to be designed in a coordinated fashion. They had to be ordered from vendors and delivered to the construction site sequentially when they were required. The activities of the contractors had to coordinate to install each item when it arrived. The engineers had to be organized to construct the building on time and within budget. ·Common sense. There are many commonsense aspects of engineering that cannot be taught in the classroom. A lack of common sense can be disastrous. For example, a library was recently built that required pilings to support it on soft ground. (A piling is a vertical rod, generally made from concrete that goes deep into the ground to support the building that rests on it). Their engineers very carefully and meticulously designed their pilings to support the weight of the building, as they had done many times before. Although the pilings were sufficient to hold the building, the engineers neglected the weight of books in the library. The pilings were insufficient to carry this additional load, so the library is now slowly sinking into the ground. ·Curiosity. Engineers must constantly learn and attempt to understand the world. A successful engineer is always asking, why? ·Involvement in the community. Engineers benefit themselves and their community by being involved with clubs and organizations (Kiwanis, Rotary, etc.). These organizations provided useful community services and also serve as networks for business contacts. ·Creativity. From their undergraduate studies, it is easy for engineering students to get a false impression that engineering is not creative. Most courses emphasize analysis, in which a problem has already been defined and the “correct” answer is being sought. Although analysis is extremely important in engineering, most engineers also employ synthesis, the act of creatively combining smaller parts to form a whole. Synthesis is essential to design, which usually starts with a loosely defined problem for which there are many possible solutions. The creative engineering challenge is to find the best solution to satisfy the project goals (low cost, reliability, functionality, etc.). Many of the technical challenge facing society can be met only with creativity. For if the solutions were obvious, the problems would already be solved
1.11 CREATIVITY Imagination is more important than knowledge. Albert Einstein If the above quotation is correct,you should expect your engineering education to start with creativity 101.Although many professors do feel that creativity is important in engineering education,creativity per se is not taught.Why is this? Some professors feel that creativity is a talent students are born with and cannot be taught. Although each of us has different creative abilities-just as we have different abilities to rum the 50 yard dash-each of us is creative.Often,all the student needs is to be in an environment in which creativity is expected and fostered. Other professors feel that because creativity is hard to grade,it should not be taught.Although it is important to evaluate students,not everything a student does must be subjected to grading. The students'education should be placed above the students'evaluation. Other professors would argue that we do not completely understand the creative process,so how could we teach it?Although it is true we do not completely understand creativity,we know enough to foster its development. Rarely is creativity directly addressed in the engineering classroom.Instead,the primary activity of engineering education is the transfer of knowledge to future generations that was painstakingly gained by past generations.(Given the vast amount of knowledge,this is a Herculean task.)Further,engineering education emphasizes the proper manipulation of knowledge to correctly solve problems.Both these activities support analysis,not synthesis.The "analysis muscles"of an engineering student tend to be well developed and toned.In contrast, their "synthesis muscles"tend to be flabby due to lack of use.Both analysis and synthesis are part of the creative process;engineers cannot be productively creative without possessing and manipulating knowledge.But it is important to realize that if you wish to tone your "synthesis muscles,"it may require activities outside the engineering classroom. Table 1.3 lists some creative professions,of which engineering is one.Although the goals of authors,artists,and composers are many,most have the desire to communicate.However,the constraints placed upon their communication are not severe.The author e.e.cummings is well known for not following grammatical conventions.We have all been to art galleries in which a blob passes for art.The musician John Cage composed a musical piece entitled 4'33"in which the audience listens to random ambient noise (e.g.,the air handling system,coughs,etc.)for 4 minutes and 33 seconds. The goals of engineers differ from those of the other creative professions (Table 1.3).To achieve these goals,we are constrained by physical laws and economics.Unlike other creative professions,we are not free to ignore our constraints.What success would an aerospace engineer achieve by ignoring gravity?Because we must work within constraints to achieve our goals,engineers must exhibit tremendous creativity. Of those engineering goals listed in Table 1.3,one of the most important is simplicity. Generally,a simple design tends to satisfy the other goals as well.The engineers'desire to achieve simplicity is known as the KISS principle:"Keep It Simple,Stupid." Although the creative process is not completely understood,we present here our own ideas about the origins of creativity.People can crudely be classified into organized thinkers
1.11 CREATIVITY Imagination is more important than knowledge. Albert Einstein If the above quotation is correct, you should expect your engineering education to start with creativity 101. Although many professors do feel that creativity is important in engineering education, creativity per se is not taught. Why is this? ·Some professors feel that creativity is a talent students are born with and cannot be taught. Although each of us has different creative abilities—just as we have different abilities to rum the 50 yard dash—each of us is creative. Often, all the student needs is to be in an environment in which creativity is expected and fostered. ·Other professors feel that because creativity is hard to grade, it should not be taught. Although it is important to evaluate students, not everything a student does must be subjected to grading. The students’ education should be placed above the students’ evaluation. ·Other professors would argue that we do not completely understand the creative process, so how could we teach it? Although it is true we do not completely understand creativity, we know enough to foster its development. Rarely is creativity directly addressed in the engineering classroom. Instead, the primary activity of engineering education is the transfer of knowledge to future generations that was painstakingly gained by past generations. (Given the vast amount of knowledge, this is a Herculean task.) Further, engineering education emphasizes the proper manipulation of knowledge to correctly solve problems. Both these activities support analysis, not synthesis. The “analysis muscles” of an engineering student tend to be well developed and toned. In contrast, their “synthesis muscles” tend to be flabby due to lack of use. Both analysis and synthesis are part of the creative process; engineers cannot be productively creative without possessing and manipulating knowledge. But it is important to realize that if you wish to tone your “synthesis muscles,” it may require activities outside the engineering classroom. Table 1.3 lists some creative professions, of which engineering is one. Although the goals of authors, artists, and composers are many, most have the desire to communicate. However, the constraints placed upon their communication are not severe. The author e.e. cummings is well known for not following grammatical conventions. We have all been to art galleries in which a blob passes for art. The musician John Cage composed a musical piece entitled 4’33’’ in which the audience listens to random ambient noise (e.g., the air handling system, coughs, etc.) for 4 minutes and 33 seconds. The goals of engineers differ from those of the other creative professions (Table 1.3). To achieve these goals, we are constrained by physical laws and economics. Unlike other creative professions, we are not free to ignore our constraints. What success would an aerospace engineer achieve by ignoring gravity? Because we must work within constraints to achieve our goals, engineers must exhibit tremendous creativity. Of those engineering goals listed in Table 1.3, one of the most important is simplicity. Generally, a simple design tends to satisfy the other goals as well. The engineers’ desire to achieve simplicity is known as the KISS principle:”Keep It Simple, Stupid.” Although the creative process is not completely understood, we present here our own ideas about the origins of creativity. People can crudely be classified into organized thinkers
disorganized thinkers,and creative thinkers.Imagine we tell each of these individuals that "paper manufacture involves removing lignin(the natural binding agent)from wood,to release cellulose fibers that are then formed into paper sheets."Figures 1.4 through 1.6 show how each thinker might store the information. The organized thinker has a well-compartmentalized mind.Facts are stored in unique places, so they are easily retrieved when need.The papermaking fact is stored under "organic chemistry, because lignin and cellulose are organic chemicals. The disorganized thinker has no structure.Although the information may be stored in multiple places,his mind is so disorganized that the information is hard to retrieve when needed. The disorganized thinker who needed to recall information about papermaking would not have a clue where to find it. The creative thinker is a combination of organized and disorganized thinkers.The creative mind is ordered and structured,but information is stored in multiple places so that when the information is needed,there is a higher probability of finding it.When creative people learn,they attempt to make many connections,so the information is stored in different places and is linked in a variety of ways.In the papermaking example,they might store the information under "organic chemistry"because they are organized,but also under "biochemistry"(because lignin and cellulose are made by living organisms)and under "art prints"(because high-quality prints must be printed on "acid-free"paper,which uses special chemistry to remove the lignin). When an engineer tries to solve a problem,she works at both the conscious and subconscious level (Figure 1.7).The subconscious seeks information that solves a qualitative model of the problem.As long as it finds no solution,the subconscious mind keeps searching the information data banks.Here,we see the advantage of creative thinkers.With information stored in multiple places and connected in useful ways,there is a greater probability that the solution to the qualitative model will be found.When the subconscious finds a solution,it emerges into consciousness.You have certainly experienced this.Perhaps you went to bed with a problem on your mind,and when you woke up,the solution seemingly "popped"into your head.In actuality, the subconscious worked on the problem while you were sleeping,and the solution emerged into your consciousness when you awoke.For engineers,generally what emerges from the subconscious is a potential solution,The actual solution won't be known until the potential solution is analyzed using a quantitative model.If analysis proves the solution,then the engineer has cause for celebration;she has solved the problem. Most of your engineering education will focus on analysis,the final step in the problem-solving process.However,unless your subconscious is trained,you won't have good potential solutions to analyze.Notice that the subconscious requires a qualitative model.A good engineer develops a "feeling"for numbers and processes and often does not have to feed mathematical formulas to get answers.Developing a feeling for numbers will also help your analysis skills,as it provides an essential check on your calculated answers
disorganized thinkers, and creative thinkers. Imagine we tell each of these individuals that “paper manufacture involves removing lignin (the natural binding agent) from wood, to release cellulose fibers that are then formed into paper sheets.” Figures 1.4 through 1.6 show how each thinker might store the information. The organized thinker has a well-compartmentalized mind. Facts are stored in unique places, so they are easily retrieved when need. The papermaking fact is stored under “organic chemistry,” because lignin and cellulose are organic chemicals. The disorganized thinker has no structure. Although the information may be stored in multiple places, his mind is so disorganized that the information is hard to retrieve when needed. The disorganized thinker who needed to recall information about papermaking would not have a clue where to find it. The creative thinker is a combination of organized and disorganized thinkers. The creative mind is ordered and structured, but information is stored in multiple places so that when the information is needed, there is a higher probability of finding it. When creative people learn, they attempt to make many connections, so the information is stored in different places and is linked in a variety of ways. In the papermaking example, they might store the information under “organic chemistry” because they are organized, but also under “biochemistry” (because lignin and cellulose are made by living organisms) and under “art prints” (because high-quality prints must be printed on “acid-free” paper, which uses special chemistry to remove the lignin). When an engineer tries to solve a problem, she works at both the conscious and subconscious level (Figure 1.7). The subconscious seeks information that solves a qualitative model of the problem. As long as it finds no solution, the subconscious mind keeps searching the information data banks. Here, we see the advantage of creative thinkers. With information stored in multiple places and connected in useful ways, there is a greater probability that the solution to the qualitative model will be found. When the subconscious finds a solution, it emerges into consciousness. You have certainly experienced this. Perhaps you went to bed with a problem on your mind, and when you woke up, the solution seemingly “popped” into your head. In actuality, the subconscious worked on the problem while you were sleeping, and the solution emerged into your consciousness when you awoke. For engineers, generally what emerges from the subconscious is a potential solution, The actual solution won’t be known until the potential solution is analyzed using a quantitative model. If analysis proves the solution, then the engineer has cause for celebration; she has solved the problem. Most of your engineering education will focus on analysis, the final step in the problem-solving process. However, unless your subconscious is trained, you won’t have good potential solutions to analyze. Notice that the subconscious requires a qualitative model. A good engineer develops a “feeling” for numbers and processes and often does not have to feed mathematical formulas to get answers. Developing a feeling for numbers will also help your analysis skills, as it provides an essential check on your calculated answers
1.12 TRAITS OF A CREATIVE ENGINEER The following list describes some traits of a creative engineer: Stick-to-it-iveness.Producing creative solutions to problems requires unbridled commitment. There are always problems along the way.A successful creative engineer does not give up. Thomas Alva Edison said that "Genius is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration." Asks why.A creative engineer is curious about the world and is constantly seeking understanding.By asking why,the creative engineer can learn how other creative engineers solved problems. Is never satisfied.A creative engineer goes through life asking,how could I do this better? Rather than complaining about a stoplight that stops his car at midnight when there is no other traffic,the creative engineer would say,how could I develop a sensor that detects my car and turns the light green? Learns from accidents.Many great technical discoveries were made by accident (e.g.,Teflon). Instead of being single-minded and narrow,be sensitive to the unexpected. Makes analogies.Recall that problem solving is an iterative process that largely involves chance (Figure 1.7).By having rich interconnections,a creative engineer increases the chance of finding a solution.We obtain rich interconnections by making analogies during learning so information is stored in multiple places. Generalizes.When a specific fact is learned,a creative engineer seeks to generalize that information to generate rich interconnections. Develops qualitative and quantitative understanding.As you study engineering,develop not only quantitative analytical skills,but also qualitative understanding.Get a feeling for the numbers and processes,because that is what your subconscious needs for its qualitative model. Has good visualization skills.Many creative solutions involve three-dimensional visualization. Often,the solution can be obtained by rearranging components,turning them around,or duplicating them. Has good drawing skills.Drawings or sketches are the fastest way by far to communicate spatial relationships,sizes,order of operations,and many other ideas.By accurately communicating through engineering graphics and sketches,an engineer can pass her ideas easily and concisely to her colleagues,or with a little explanation,to non-engineers. Possesses unbounded thinking.Very few of us are trained in general engineering.Most of us are trained in an engineering discipline.If we restrict our thinking to a narrowly defined discipline,we will miss many potential solutions.Perhaps the solution requires the combined knowledge of mechanical,electrical,and chemical engineering.Although it is unreasonable that we be expert in all engineering discipline,each of us should develop enough knowledge to hold intelligent conversations with those in other disciplines. Has broad interests.A creative engineer must be happy.This requires balancing intellectual, emotional,and physical needs.Engineering education emphasizes your intellectual development;you are responsible for developing your emotional and physical skills by socializing with friends,having a stimulating hobby (e.g.,music,art,literature),and exercising. Collects obscure information.Easy problems can be solved with commonly available
1.12 TRAITS OF A CREATIVE ENGINEER The following list describes some traits of a creative engineer: ·Stick-to-it-iveness. Producing creative solutions to problems requires unbridled commitment. There are always problems along the way. A successful creative engineer does not give up. Thomas Alva Edison said that “Genius is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.” · Asks why. A creative engineer is curious about the world and is constantly seeking understanding. By asking why, the creative engineer can learn how other creative engineers solved problems. · Is never satisfied. A creative engineer goes through life asking, how could I do this better? Rather than complaining about a stoplight that stops his car at midnight when there is no other traffic, the creative engineer would say, how could I develop a sensor that detects my car and turns the light green? · Learns from accidents. Many great technical discoveries were made by accident (e.g., Teflon). Instead of being single-minded and narrow, be sensitive to the unexpected. · Makes analogies. Recall that problem solving is an iterative process that largely involves chance (Figure 1.7). By having rich interconnections, a creative engineer increases the chance of finding a solution. We obtain rich interconnections by making analogies during learning so information is stored in multiple places. · Generalizes. When a specific fact is learned, a creative engineer seeks to generalize that information to generate rich interconnections. · Develops qualitative and quantitative understanding. As you study engineering, develop not only quantitative analytical skills, but also qualitative understanding. Get a feeling for the numbers and processes, because that is what your subconscious needs for its qualitative model. · Has good visualization skills. Many creative solutions involve three-dimensional visualization. Often, the solution can be obtained by rearranging components, turning them around, or duplicating them. · Has good drawing skills. Drawings or sketches are the fastest way by far to communicate spatial relationships, sizes, order of operations, and many other ideas. By accurately communicating through engineering graphics and sketches, an engineer can pass her ideas easily and concisely to her colleagues, or with a little explanation, to non-engineers. · Possesses unbounded thinking. Very few of us are trained in general engineering. Most of us are trained in an engineering discipline. If we restrict our thinking to a narrowly defined discipline, we will miss many potential solutions. Perhaps the solution requires the combined knowledge of mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineering. Although it is unreasonable that we be expert in all engineering discipline, each of us should develop enough knowledge to hold intelligent conversations with those in other disciplines. · Has broad interests. A creative engineer must be happy. This requires balancing intellectual, emotional, and physical needs. Engineering education emphasizes your intellectual development; you are responsible for developing your emotional and physical skills by socializing with friends, having a stimulating hobby (e.g., music, art, literature), and exercising. · Collects obscure information. Easy problems can be solved with commonly available
information.The hard problems often require obscure information. Works with nature,not against it.Do not enter a problem with preconceived notions about how it must be solved.Nature will often guide you through the solution if you are attentive to its whispers. Keeps an engineering "toolbox."An engineering "toolbox"is filled with simple qualitative relationships needed by the qualitative model in the subconscious.These simple qualitative relationships may be the distilled wisdom from quantitative engineering analysis.The following sections describe a few"tools."As you progress through your career,you will need a large toolbox to hold all the tools you acquire from your experience. 1.12.1 Cube-Square Law An example of information an engineer may store in her toolbox is the cube-square law.The cube-square law says that as an object gets smaller,its volume decreases much faster than its area.Therefore,the surface-area-to-volume ratio increases with smaller objects. To illustrate this law,imagine our object is a sphere(Figure 1.8).This surface area a is A=4π2 (1-2) And the volume V is 4 V=-πr (1-3) 3 The surface-area-to-volume ratio is A4πr23 ”三 (1-4) D4πr3r This equation says that the area-to volume ratio increases as the radius decreases. The cube-square law is one of the most overcharging laws in nature,as shown by the following examples: Example 1.1 Imagine you work in a cannonball factory that casts cannonballs from molten metal and cools them in air.From the cube-square law,you know that smaller cannonballs will cool down faster than the large cannonballs,because the rate of heat loss is affected by the surface area but the total amount of heat loss is determined by the cannonball volume. Example 1.2 Imagine that you must select the most energy-efficient method to fly 500 passengers from New York to Paris.You could charter five 100-passenger planes or one 500-passenger plane.Fuel is primarily required to overcome air drag,which is dictated by the plane surface area.Passenger capacity is determined by the plane volume.To improve fuel economy,you want a small surface area relative to the volume,so one large plane is better than five smaller planes. Example 1.3 You want to store 50,000 gallons of diesel fuel.You are contemplating purchasing one 50,000 gallon tank or five 10,000 gallon tanks.Tank vendors charge for the metal,not the air in the tank;therefore,tank cost is mostly determined by the surface area
information. The hard problems often require obscure information. · Works with nature, not against it. Do not enter a problem with preconceived notions about how it must be solved. Nature will often guide you through the solution if you are attentive to its whispers. · Keeps an engineering “toolbox.” An engineering “toolbox” is filled with simple qualitative relationships needed by the qualitative model in the subconscious. These simple qualitative relationships may be the distilled wisdom from quantitative engineering analysis. The following sections describe a few “tools.” As you progress through your career, you will need a large toolbox to hold all the tools you acquire from your experience. 1.12.1 Cube-Square Law An example of information an engineer may store in her toolbox is the cube-square law. The cube-square law says that as an object gets smaller, its volume decreases much faster than its area. Therefore, the surface-area-to –volume ratio increases with smaller objects. To illustrate this law, imagine our object is a sphere (Figure 1.8). This surface area A is 2 A 4 r (1-2) And the volume V is 4 3 3 V r (1-3) The surface-area-to –volume ratio is 2 3 4 3 4 3 A r V r r (1-4) This equation says that the area-to volume ratio increases as the radius decreases. The cube-square law is one of the most overcharging laws in nature, as shown by the following examples: Example 1.1 Imagine you work in a cannonball factory that casts cannonballs from molten metal and cools them in air. From the cube-square law, you know that smaller cannonballs will cool down faster than the large cannonballs, because the rate of heat loss is affected by the surface area but the total amount of heat loss is determined by the cannonball volume. Example 1.2 Imagine that you must select the most energy-efficient method to fly 500 passengers from New York to Paris. You could charter five 100-passenger planes or one 500-passenger plane. Fuel is primarily required to overcome air drag, which is dictated by the plane surface area. Passenger capacity is determined by the plane volume. To improve fuel economy, you want a small surface area relative to the volume, so one large plane is better than five smaller planes. Example 1.3 You want to store 50,000 gallons of diesel fuel. You are contemplating purchasing one 50,000 gallon tank or five 10,000 gallon tanks. Tank vendors charge for the metal, not the air in the tank; therefore, tank cost is mostly determined by the surface area
