上海交通大学：《材料与文明》课程教学资源（参考资料）Understanding Mater_Chapter 1 - The First Materials（Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age）

1 The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) Materials have accompanied mankind virtually from the very be- ginning of its existence.Among the first materials utilized by man were certainly stone and wood,but bone,fibers,feathers,shells, animal skin,and clay also served specific purposes. Materials were predominantly used for tools,weapons,uten- sils,shelter,and for self-expression,that is,for creating decora- tions or jewelry.The increased usage and development of ever more sophisticated materials were paralleled by a rise of the con- sciousness of mankind.In other words,it seems to be that ad- vanced civilizations generally invented and used more elaborate materials.This observation is probably still true in present days. Materials have been considered of such importance that his- torians and other scholars have named certain ancient periods after the material which was predominantly utilized at that re- spective time.Examples are the Stone Age,the Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic!Period),the Bronze Age,and the Iron Age.The Stone Age,which is defined to have begun about 2.5 million years ago, is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age),the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),and the Neolithic (New Stone Age)phases. We will consider on the following pages mostly the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods.Surprisingly,these classifications do not in- clude a Ceramics Age,even though pottery played an important role during extended time periods(see Chapter 15). Chalcos (Greek)=copper;lithos(Greek)=stone

1 Materials have accompanied mankind virtually from the very be￾ginning of its existence. Among the first materials utilized by man were certainly stone and wood, but bone, fibers, feathers, shells, animal skin, and clay also served specific purposes. Materials were predominantly used for tools, weapons, uten￾sils, shelter, and for self-expression, that is, for creating decora￾tions or jewelry. The increased usage and development of ever more sophisticated materials were paralleled by a rise of the con￾sciousness of mankind. In other words, it seems to be that ad￾vanced civilizations generally invented and used more elaborate materials. This observation is probably still true in present days. Materials have been considered of such importance that his￾torians and other scholars have named certain ancient periods after the material which was predominantly utilized at that re￾spective time. Examples are the Stone Age, the Copper–Stone Age (Chalcolithic1 Period), the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The Stone Age, which is defined to have begun about 2.5 million years ago, is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and the Neolithic (New Stone Age) phases. We will consider on the following pages mostly the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Surprisingly, these classifications do not in￾clude a Ceramics Age, even though pottery played an important role during extended time periods (see Chapter 15). The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) 1Chalcos (Greek)
copper; lithos (Greek)
stone

1.The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) The names of some metals have entered certain linguistic us- ages.For example,the Greeks distinguished the Golden Age (dur- ing which supposedly peace and happiness prevailed)from the Silver Age.Rather than being descriptive of the materials that were used,these distinctions had more metaphorical meanings. Specifically,gold has always been held in high esteem in the eyes of mankind.Medals for outstanding performances (sport events, etc.)are conferred in gold,silver,or bronze.Specific wedding anniversaries are classified using gold,silver,and iron. Until very recently,the mastery of materials has been achieved mainly by empirical means or,at its best,by a form of alchemy. Only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries did systematic re- search lead to an interdisciplinary field of study that was even- tually named materials science.This will be explained and demon- strated in detail in later chapters. Materials often have to be cut,shaped,or smoothed before they reach their final form and designation.For this,a tool that is harder than the work piece has to be set in action.As an exam- ple,flint stone having a sharp edge was used by early man for cutting and shaping other materials such as wood. The simplest and most common method of making stone tools from bulk rocks was by percussion flaking.Specifically,a lump stone was struck with another stone to detach small pieces from it.If these flakes happened to have sharp edges,they could be used as cutting tools.In early times,the tools were hand-held.Later (probably 5,000-10,000 years ago),stone flakes were attached to wooden handles using fibers or vegetable resin.This provided for better leverage,thereby amplifying their impact.Other flakes may have been used as spear or arrow tips,etc.(see Plate 1.1). Recent excavations in the Gona Valley of Ethiopia yielded about 3,000 tools consisting of hammer stones and knives prob- ably used to sharpen sticks or to cut meat.They are said to be two and a half million years old (!)and have likely been split from volcanic rocks.No remains of the toolmakers were found. Fishing hooks were made from shell and bone.Ground min- eral pigments were used for body painting.Grass fibers(e.g.,flax, hemp,etc.)or animal hair (wool)served as clothing and for hold- ing loose objects together.Jade,greenstone,and amber were uti- lized for adornments.This list could be continued. Stones,particularly flint and obsidian(a dark gray natural glass that precipitated from volcanic emissions,see Plate 1.2)were available to Neolithic man in sufficient quantities at certain lo- cations.Because of their abundance and their sharp edges,stones filled the needs as tools and weapons.Thus,it is not immediately evident why mankind gradually switched from a stone-using so- ciety to the metals age

The names of some metals have entered certain linguistic us￾ages. For example, the Greeks distinguished the Golden Age (dur￾ing which supposedly peace and happiness prevailed) from the Silver Age. Rather than being descriptive of the materials that were used, these distinctions had more metaphorical meanings. Specifically, gold has always been held in high esteem in the eyes of mankind. Medals for outstanding performances (sport events, etc.) are conferred in gold, silver, or bronze. Specific wedding anniversaries are classified using gold, silver, and iron. Until very recently, the mastery of materials has been achieved mainly by empirical means or, at its best, by a form of alchemy. Only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries did systematic re￾search lead to an interdisciplinary field of study that was even￾tually named materials science. This will be explained and demon￾strated in detail in later chapters. Materials often have to be cut, shaped, or smoothed before they reach their final form and designation. For this, a tool that is harder than the work piece has to be set in action. As an exam￾ple, flint stone having a sharp edge was used by early man for cutting and shaping other materials such as wood. The simplest and most common method of making stone tools from bulk rocks was by percussion flaking. Specifically, a lump stone was struck with another stone to detach small pieces from it. If these flakes happened to have sharp edges, they could be used as cutting tools. In early times, the tools were hand-held. Later (probably 5,000–10,000 years ago), stone flakes were attached to wooden handles using fibers or vegetable resin. This provided for better leverage, thereby amplifying their impact. Other flakes may have been used as spear or arrow tips, etc. (see Plate 1.1). Recent excavations in the Gona Valley of Ethiopia yielded about 3,000 tools consisting of hammer stones and knives prob￾ably used to sharpen sticks or to cut meat. They are said to be two and a half million years old (!) and have likely been split from volcanic rocks. No remains of the toolmakers were found. Fishing hooks were made from shell and bone. Ground min￾eral pigments were used for body painting. Grass fibers (e.g., flax, hemp, etc.) or animal hair (wool) served as clothing and for hold￾ing loose objects together. Jade, greenstone, and amber were uti￾lized for adornments. This list could be continued. Stones, particularly flint and obsidian (a dark gray natural glass that precipitated from volcanic emissions, see Plate 1.2) were available to Neolithic man in sufficient quantities at certain lo￾cations. Because of their abundance and their sharp edges, stones filled the needs as tools and weapons. Thus, it is not immediately evident why mankind gradually switched from a stone-using so￾ciety to the metals age. 4 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age)

1.The First Materials(Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) 5 FIGURE 1.1.Copper pendant found in a cave in northeast Iraq;about 9500 B.C.The shape was obtained by hammering native copper or by carving copper ore.(Reprinted by permission from C.S.Smith, Metallurgy as a Human Experi- ence (1977),ASM International, Materials Park,OH,Figure 2.) This transition,incidentally,did not occur at the same time in all places of the world.The introduction of metals stretched over nearly 5,000 years,if it occurred at all,and seems to have begun independently at various locations.For example,metals were used quite early in Anatolia,the bridge between Asia and Europe (part of today's Turkey),where a highly developed civilization existed which cultivated seed-bearing grasses(wheat and barley) and domesticated such animals as cattle,sheep,and goats.The transition from a nomadic to a settled society left time for ac- tivities other than concerns for everyday gathering of food.Thus, man's interest in his environment,for example,in native copper, gold,silver,mercury,or lead,is understandable. Neolithic man must have found out that metals in their native state (that is,not combined with other elements,as in ores)can be deformed and hardened by hammering or can be softened by heat- ing.Pieces of native metals were probably quite valuable because they were rare.Still,these pure metals were generally too soft to replace,to a large extent,tools and weapons made of stone.Thus, pure metals,particularly copper,silver,and gold,were mostly used for ceremonial purposes and to create ornaments or decorations. As an example,one of the very earliest copper artifacts,a 2.3-cm long,oval-shaped pendant is shown in Figure 1.1.It was found in a cave in northeast Iraq (Shanidar).It is believed that it has been created around 9500 B.C.by hammering native copper or possibly by carving copper ore.Utensils made of metal must have lent some prestige to their owner.Copper,in particular,played an outstand- ing role because of its appearance and its relative abundance(es- pecially after man learned how to smelt it).In short,the stone and ISee the map on the rear endpaper for locations cited in the following discussion

FIGURE 1.1. Copper pendant found in a cave in northeast Iraq; about 9500 B.C. The shape was obtained by hammering native copper or by carving copper ore. (Reprinted by permission from C.S. Smith, Metallurgy as a Human Experi￾ence (1977), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, Figure 2.) 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) 5 1See the map on the rear endpaper for locations cited in the following discussion. This transition, incidentally, did not occur at the same time in all places of the world. The introduction of metals stretched over nearly 5,000 years, if it occurred at all, and seems to have begun independently at various locations. For example, metals were used quite early in Anatolia, the bridge between Asia and Europe (part of today’s Turkey),1 where a highly developed civilization existed which cultivated seed-bearing grasses (wheat and barley) and domesticated such animals as cattle, sheep, and goats. The transition from a nomadic to a settled society left time for ac￾tivities other than concerns for everyday gathering of food. Thus, man’s interest in his environment, for example, in native copper, gold, silver, mercury, or lead, is understandable. Neolithic man must have found out that metals in their native state (that is, not combined with other elements, as in ores) can be deformed and hardened by hammering or can be softened by heat￾ing. Pieces of native metals were probably quite valuable because they were rare. Still, these pure metals were generally too soft to replace, to a large extent, tools and weapons made of stone. Thus, pure metals, particularly copper, silver, and gold, were mostly used for ceremonial purposes and to create ornaments or decorations. As an example, one of the very earliest copper artifacts, a 2.3-cm long, oval-shaped pendant is shown in Figure 1.1. It was found in a cave in northeast Iraq (Shanidar). It is believed that it has been created around 9500 B.C. by hammering native copper or possibly by carving copper ore. Utensils made of metal must have lent some prestige to their owner. Copper, in particular, played an outstand￾ing role because of its appearance and its relative abundance (es￾pecially after man learned how to smelt it). In short, the stone and

6 1.The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) copper ages coexisted for a long time.This led to the above-men- tioned name,Chalcolithic,or Copper-Stone Age. The exact time when Neolithic man begun to use copper will probably never be exactly known,but it is believed that this was about 8000 B.C.Copper weapons and utensils were found in Egypt- ian graves dating about 5000 B.C.The epics of Shu Ching mention the use of copper in China at 2500 B.C.Native copper for orna- ments is believed to have been used in the Lake Superior area in Michigan(USA)starting A.D.100-200 where rich deposits of native copper are present.(Other scholars date Native American copper use as early as 4000 B.C.) Eventually,native copper and other metals must have been nearly exhausted.Thus,Neolithic man turned his attention to new sources for metals,namely,those that were locked up in minerals.A widely used copper ore is malachite(Plate 1.3).It is plentiful in certain regions of the earth such as in Anatolia,or on the Sinai peninsula.Other regions,such as Cyprus,contain chalcopyrite (a copper-iron sulfide).Now,the smelting of cop- per from copper ore,that is,the separation of copper from oxy- gen,sulphur,and carbon,was (and is),by no means,a trivial task.It requires intense heat,that is,temperatures above the melting point of pure copper (1084C)and a"reducing atmos- phere";in other words,an environment that is devoid of oxygen and rich in carbon monoxide.The latter is obtained by burning wood or charcoal.When all conditions are just right,the oxygen is removed from the copper ore and combines with carbon monoxide to yield gaseous carbon dioxide,which is allowed to escape.Finally,a fluxing agent,for example,iron ore,assists in Charcoal. Ore. Flux Clay Bellows Bricks 9 FIGURE 1.2.Schematic representation 0/Q0 Slag of an ancient copper smelting furnace which was charged with a mixture of Cu charcoal,copper ore,and flux (e.g., iron ore).The oxygen was provided by forcing air into the furnace by means of foot-operated bellows

copper ages coexisted for a long time. This led to the above-men￾tioned name, Chalcolithic, or Copper–Stone Age. The exact time when Neolithic man begun to use copper will probably never be exactly known, but it is believed that this was about 8000 B.C. Copper weapons and utensils were found in Egypt￾ian graves dating about 5000 B.C. The epics of Shu Ching mention the use of copper in China at 2500 B.C. Native copper for orna￾ments is believed to have been used in the Lake Superior area in Michigan (USA) starting A.D. 100–200 where rich deposits of native copper are present. (Other scholars date Native American copper use as early as 4000 B.C.) Eventually, native copper and other metals must have been nearly exhausted. Thus, Neolithic man turned his attention to new sources for metals, namely, those that were locked up in minerals. A widely used copper ore is malachite (Plate 1.3). It is plentiful in certain regions of the earth such as in Anatolia, or on the Sinai peninsula. Other regions, such as Cyprus, contain chalcopyrite (a copper-iron sulfide). Now, the smelting of cop￾per from copper ore, that is, the separation of copper from oxy￾gen, sulphur, and carbon, was (and is), by no means, a trivial task. It requires intense heat, that is, temperatures above the melting point of pure copper (1084°C) and a “reducing atmos￾phere”; in other words, an environment that is devoid of oxygen and rich in carbon monoxide. The latter is obtained by burning wood or charcoal. When all conditions are just right, the oxygen is removed from the copper ore and combines with carbon monoxide to yield gaseous carbon dioxide, which is allowed to escape. Finally, a fluxing agent, for example, iron ore, assists in 6 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) ￾￾ ￾ ￾￾ ￾￾￾￾ ￾￾￾￾￾ Bellows ￾￾￾￾￾￾ ￾￾ ￾￾￾￾￾ ￾￾ Cu Charcoal, Ore, Flux Tuyere Slag Bricks Clay FIGURE 1.2. Schematic representation of an ancient copper smelting furnace which was charged with a mixture of charcoal, copper ore, and flux (e.g., iron ore). The oxygen was provided by forcing air into the furnace by means of foot-operated bellows

1.The First Materials(Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) 7 the reduction process.It also aids eventually in the separation of the molten copper from the slag once the melt has cooled down. Specifically,iron ore combines with the unwanted sand particles that just happen to be contained in the ore. The immense heat was accomplished by burning charcoal com- bined with blowing air into the furnace either by mechanically ac- tivated bellows and/or through blow tubes(called tuyeres)(Figure 1.2),or by placing the furnace near the top of a mountain where the updraft winds were utilized.It is still a mystery today how Neolithic man could have found this chain of procedures without a certain degree of intuition or possibly the help of initiates. Archaeo-metallurgists have recently ruled out the hypothesis that copper could have been accidentally formed in campfires whose enclosures may have consisted of copper-ore-containing rocks.The temperatures in campfires(600-700C)are known to be too low for smelting copper and the reducing atmosphere does not persist for a long enough time.(However,lead,which has a lower melting temperature,can be smelted this way from its ore.) It is believed today that the"technology"of copper smelting was probably borrowed from the art of making pottery,which was de- veloped nine or ten thousand years ago or perhaps even earlier at certain locations.Indeed,the oldest known artifact made of baked clay is a fertility figurine called the "Venus of Vestonice,"which was found in the Czech Republic and supposedly dates back to about 23,000 B.c.(see Figure 15.1).In general,however,copper smelting and pottery seem to appear at comparable times in his- tory.Specifically,Neolithic man had observed that mud bricks harden when dried in the sun and soften when again exposed to rain.A deliberate attempt to accelerate the drying process by ex- posing the mud bricks to the heat of a fire probably led to the ob- servation that an irreversible hardening process had occurred.A chemical transformation near 500C causes a permanent consis- tency of clay which makes it water-resistant.It can be reasonably assumed that this observation eventually led to the systematic de- velopment of the art of pottery and the design of kilns instead of drying clay over or under an open fire.Neolithic man must have observed that stacking pots on top of wood fuel and covering this pile with fragments of pottery and earth would increase the tem- perature.Eventually,kilns with permanent walls were developed, parts of which still exist today,dating back to the beginning of the sixth millennium B.C.We shall return to this subject in Chapter 15. Neolithic people have decorated some pottery utilizing proba- bly the same ground-up metal ores(mixed with a lead oxide bind- ing agent)that were used customarily for tribal body painting.Var- ious metal oxides produce different colors.Pigments of copper

the reduction process. It also aids eventually in the separation of the molten copper from the slag once the melt has cooled down. Specifically, iron ore combines with the unwanted sand particles that just happen to be contained in the ore. The immense heat was accomplished by burning charcoal com￾bined with blowing air into the furnace either by mechanically ac￾tivated bellows and/or through blow tubes (called tuyères) (Figure 1.2), or by placing the furnace near the top of a mountain where the updraft winds were utilized. It is still a mystery today how Neolithic man could have found this chain of procedures without a certain degree of intuition or possibly the help of initiates. Archaeo-metallurgists have recently ruled out the hypothesis that copper could have been accidentally formed in campfires whose enclosures may have consisted of copper-ore–containing rocks. The temperatures in campfires (600–700°C) are known to be too low for smelting copper and the reducing atmosphere does not persist for a long enough time. (However, lead, which has a lower melting temperature, can be smelted this way from its ore.) It is believed today that the “technology” of copper smelting was probably borrowed from the art of making pottery, which was de￾veloped nine or ten thousand years ago or perhaps even earlier at certain locations. Indeed, the oldest known artifact made of baked clay is a fertility figurine called the “Venus of Vestonice,” which was found in the Czech Republic and supposedly dates back to about 23,000 B.C. (see Figure 15.1). In general, however, copper smelting and pottery seem to appear at comparable times in his￾tory. Specifically, Neolithic man had observed that mud bricks harden when dried in the sun and soften when again exposed to rain. A deliberate attempt to accelerate the drying process by ex￾posing the mud bricks to the heat of a fire probably led to the ob￾servation that an irreversible hardening process had occurred. A chemical transformation near 500°C causes a permanent consis￾tency of clay which makes it water-resistant. It can be reasonably assumed that this observation eventually led to the systematic de￾velopment of the art of pottery and the design of kilns instead of drying clay over or under an open fire. Neolithic man must have observed that stacking pots on top of wood fuel and covering this pile with fragments of pottery and earth would increase the tem￾perature. Eventually, kilns with permanent walls were developed, parts of which still exist today, dating back to the beginning of the sixth millennium B.C. We shall return to this subject in Chapter 15. Neolithic people have decorated some pottery utilizing proba￾bly the same ground-up metal ores (mixed with a lead oxide bind￾ing agent) that were used customarily for tribal body painting. Var￾ious metal oxides produce different colors. Pigments of copper 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) 7

8 1.The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) oxide,for example,yield a blue color,chromium oxide gives green, antimony salts yield yellow,and iron yields pink hues after a sec- ond firing of these "glazes."Could it have been that the overfiring of glazed pots accidentally produced small droplets of metals,that is,caused some smelting of metal ores in the glazed areas? Another question remains to be answered.Was copper smelt- ing conceived of independently in different parts of the world,or was this technology transferred from neighboring regions through trading contacts?Possibly both happened.Among the first civilizations to utilize copper smelting were probably the in- habitants of Anatolia(Catal Huyuk)and of the Sinai peninsula (Timna Valley),both blessed with rich and abundant copper ores on or near the surface.On the other hand,copper(and gold)ob- jects have been found in graves at Varna on the Black Sea dat- ing back to about 4300 B.C.(Plate 1.4). Naturally,raw copper needed to be transported to other places where goods were produced from it.For standardization,copper ingots were cast in a peculiar form that resembled the shape of an ox hide,as shown in Figure 1.3.A vivid depiction of ancient copper smelting and casting has been found on a mural in the tomb of an Egyptian nobleman;see Figure 1.4. Seemingly independent from this development,Europeans had turned,out of necessity,to underground copper mining even be- fore 4000 B.C.(for example,at Rudna Glava in Yugoslavia).One mine in Bulgaria was found to have shafts about 10 meters deep. The copper mines on the Balkans are the earliest so far discov- ered in the world.Other indigenous copper workings were dis- covered in southern Spain (Iberia)and northern Italy.The dis- lodging of rocks in mines was accomplished by burning wood at the end of a tunnel and then quenching the hot rock with water. This caused the rock to crack so that small pieces could be loos- ened with a pick.Underground mining must have been a large- FiGURE 1.3.Copper ingots were traded in the Mediterranean region in an ox-hide shape hav- ing a length of about 30 cm.Specimens have been found in shipwrecks off the south coast of Turkey and in palace storerooms in Crete. (See also Figure 4.1.)Incidentally,raw gold was traded in the form of large rings

oxide, for example, yield a blue color, chromium oxide gives green, antimony salts yield yellow, and iron yields pink hues after a sec￾ond firing of these “glazes.” Could it have been that the overfiring of glazed pots accidentally produced small droplets of metals, that is, caused some smelting of metal ores in the glazed areas? Another question remains to be answered. Was copper smelt￾ing conceived of independently in different parts of the world, or was this technology transferred from neighboring regions through trading contacts? Possibly both happened. Among the first civilizations to utilize copper smelting were probably the in￾habitants of Anatolia (Catal Hüyük) and of the Sinai peninsula (Timna Valley), both blessed with rich and abundant copper ores on or near the surface. On the other hand, copper (and gold) ob￾jects have been found in graves at Varna on the Black Sea dat￾ing back to about 4300 B.C. (Plate 1.4). Naturally, raw copper needed to be transported to other places where goods were produced from it. For standardization, copper ingots were cast in a peculiar form that resembled the shape of an ox hide, as shown in Figure 1.3. A vivid depiction of ancient copper smelting and casting has been found on a mural in the tomb of an Egyptian nobleman; see Figure 1.4. Seemingly independent from this development, Europeans had turned, out of necessity, to underground copper mining even be￾fore 4000 B.C. (for example, at Rudna Glava in Yugoslavia). One mine in Bulgaria was found to have shafts about 10 meters deep. The copper mines on the Balkans are the earliest so far discov￾ered in the world. Other indigenous copper workings were dis￾covered in southern Spain (Iberia) and northern Italy. The dis￾lodging of rocks in mines was accomplished by burning wood at the end of a tunnel and then quenching the hot rock with water. This caused the rock to crack so that small pieces could be loos￾ened with a pick. Underground mining must have been a large- 8 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) FIGURE 1.3. Copper ingots were traded in the Mediterranean region in an ox-hide shape hav￾ing a length of about 30 cm. Specimens have been found in shipwrecks off the south coast of Turkey and in palace storerooms in Crete. (See also Figure 4.1.) Incidentally, raw gold was traded in the form of large rings

1.The First Materials(Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) 9 FIGURE 1.4.A portion scale operation that involved workers who supplied the fuel,oth- of a mural from the ers who were involved in transportation,and naturally the actual tomb of the Vizier miners. Rekh-Mi-Re at Thebes Subsurface ores are often more complex in composition than depicting metal melt- those found on the face of the earth.In particular,they contain ing and casting during the second millenium sulfur that needs to be removed before smelting.For this,a sep- B.C.in Egypt.Note arate heating process,which we call today "roasting,"needed to the foot-operated bel- be applied. lows,the heaps of Among the earliest metalworkers in Europe were people in charcoal,and the whose graves characteristic bell-shaped clay cups have been “green"wood sticks found,and who therefore are called the Bell Beaker Folk.They with which the hot were superb potters and coppersmiths.They traveled across the containers were held. continent from Poland to the west and north to Scandinavia and (Reprinted by permis- the British Isles,offering their services as makers of knives,spear sion from B.Scheel, heads,hammers,axes,and as tinkerers.They spread the knowl- Egyptian Metalworking edge of metalworking across Europe during the second and third and Tools,Shire Publi- cations,Aylesbury, millennia B.C.However,it is not quite clear where the Bell Beaker U.K.) Folk came from,but it is assumed that they originated in Spain. In this context,it is interesting to know about a Stone-Age man (named by the press,"Otzi"),whose well-preserved,mummified body was found in 1991 in a glacier of the austrian-Italian Alps (Tyrol)at an altitude of 3200 meters.Carbon-14 dating(taken on his bones and soft tissue)places his age at approximately 3300 B.C.,which is in the European Chalcolithic period.Among his possessions was an axe with a wooden handle of yew that had a small blade of copper(not bronze)whose size is 9.5 cm in length and 3.5 cm in breadth (Plate 1.5).Further,he possessed a small knife with a stone blade attached to a wooden handle and a bow

scale operation that involved workers who supplied the fuel, oth￾ers who were involved in transportation, and naturally the actual miners. Subsurface ores are often more complex in composition than those found on the face of the earth. In particular, they contain sulfur that needs to be removed before smelting. For this, a sep￾arate heating process, which we call today “roasting,” needed to be applied. Among the earliest metalworkers in Europe were people in whose graves characteristic bell-shaped clay cups have been found, and who therefore are called the Bell Beaker Folk. They were superb potters and coppersmiths. They traveled across the continent from Poland to the west and north to Scandinavia and the British Isles, offering their services as makers of knives, spear heads, hammers, axes, and as tinkerers. They spread the knowl￾edge of metalworking across Europe during the second and third millennia B.C. However, it is not quite clear where the Bell Beaker Folk came from, but it is assumed that they originated in Spain. In this context, it is interesting to know about a Stone-Age man (named by the press, “Ötzi”), whose well-preserved, mummified body was found in 1991 in a glacier of the Austrian–Italian Alps (Tyrol) at an altitude of 3200 meters. Carbon-14 dating (taken on his bones and soft tissue) places his age at approximately 3300 B.C., which is in the European Chalcolithic period. Among his possessions was an axe with a wooden handle of yew that had a small blade of copper (not bronze) whose size is 9.5 cm in length and 3.5 cm in breadth (Plate 1.5). Further, he possessed a small knife with a stone blade attached to a wooden handle and a bow 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) 9 FIGURE 1.4. A portion of a mural from the tomb of the Vizier Rekh-Mi-Re at Thebes depicting metal melt￾ing and casting during the second millenium B.C. in Egypt. Note the foot-operated bel￾lows, the heaps of charcoal, and the “green” wood sticks with which the hot containers were held. (Reprinted by permis￾sion from B. Scheel, Egyptian Metalworking and Tools, Shire Publi￾cations, Aylesbury, U.K.)

10 1.The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper-Stone Age) made of yew with several flint-tipped arrows.Several items ap- pear to be remarkable.First,tools made of copper were appar- ently in use during the Chalcolithic period even though copper is relatively soft and thus could not have been used for cutting down trees.Second,copper had an apparently wider use than previously assumed and was therefore not in possession of the privileged people only.Third,the find,unlike those experienced in burial sites,shows equipment that Chalcolithic man consid- ered to be vital for his endeavor in the high Alpine mountains. Copper and stone were certainly parts of these necessities. Surprisingly enough,copper smelting technologies,quite sim- ilarly to those in Timna,began in northern Peru not before the year 800,that is,about 5000 years later.And the Aboriginal peo- ple in Australia and Tasmania,the North American Indians,and the South Pacific Islanders never engaged in copper smelting (or any other major metal technologies)until the Europeans arrived, despite the rich mineral resources that slumbered on and in their mountains.One may conclude,therefore,that various cultures had different interests and needs that should not be compared nor their values judged. It can be reasonably assumed from the above considerations that Chalcolithic man intuitively understood some of the basic mechanical properties of materials.Stone(and many other glassy and ceramic materials)is hard and brittle.Copper (and many other metals as well as wet clay)is ductilel;that is,these mate- rials can be permanently deformed (to a certain limit)without breaking.Copper is soft in its native or freshly molten state,but eventually hardens when plastically2 (i.e.,permanently)de- formed.Finally,wood is to a large degree an elastic material;its original shape is restored when a moderate pressure that was ap- plied to it has been removed.Many metals can likewise be elas- tically deformed,until,upon exceeding a critical load,they un- dergo permanent deformation.In short,some of the fundamental mechanical properties of materials such as hardness,ductility, elastic or plastic deformability,brittleness,and strength must have been known for a long time.Early man has utilized these different properties of materials to best suit a particular purpose. Nothing has changed in this respect during the past ten thou- sand years;see Plate 1.6.Therefore,it seems to be quite appro- priate to explain these fundamental properties of materials,as we understand them today,in the chapters to come. Ducere (Latin)=to shape,to draw out,to lead. 2Plasticos (Greek)=to shape,to form

made of yew with several flint-tipped arrows. Several items ap￾pear to be remarkable. First, tools made of copper were appar￾ently in use during the Chalcolithic period even though copper is relatively soft and thus could not have been used for cutting down trees. Second, copper had an apparently wider use than previously assumed and was therefore not in possession of the privileged people only. Third, the find, unlike those experienced in burial sites, shows equipment that Chalcolithic man consid￾ered to be vital for his endeavor in the high Alpine mountains. Copper and stone were certainly parts of these necessities. Surprisingly enough, copper smelting technologies, quite sim￾ilarly to those in Timna, began in northern Peru not before the year 800, that is, about 5000 years later. And the Aboriginal peo￾ple in Australia and Tasmania, the North American Indians, and the South Pacific Islanders never engaged in copper smelting (or any other major metal technologies) until the Europeans arrived, despite the rich mineral resources that slumbered on and in their mountains. One may conclude, therefore, that various cultures had different interests and needs that should not be compared nor their values judged. It can be reasonably assumed from the above considerations that Chalcolithic man intuitively understood some of the basic mechanical properties of materials. Stone (and many other glassy and ceramic materials) is hard and brittle. Copper (and many other metals as well as wet clay) is ductile1; that is, these mate￾rials can be permanently deformed (to a certain limit) without breaking. Copper is soft in its native or freshly molten state, but eventually hardens when plastically2 (i.e., permanently) de￾formed. Finally, wood is to a large degree an elastic material; its original shape is restored when a moderate pressure that was ap￾plied to it has been removed. Many metals can likewise be elas￾tically deformed, until, upon exceeding a critical load, they un￾dergo permanent deformation. In short, some of the fundamental mechanical properties of materials such as hardness, ductility, elastic or plastic deformability, brittleness, and strength must have been known for a long time. Early man has utilized these different properties of materials to best suit a particular purpose. Nothing has changed in this respect during the past ten thou￾sand years; see Plate 1.6. Therefore, it seems to be quite appro￾priate to explain these fundamental properties of materials, as we understand them today, in the chapters to come. 10 1 • The First Materials (Stone Age and Copper–Stone Age) 1Ducere (Latin)
to shape, to draw out, to lead. 2Plasticos (Greek)
to shape, to form

Suggestions for Further Study 11 Suggestions for Further Study R.W.Cahn,The Coming of Materials Science,Pergamon/Amsterdam (2001). B.Cunliffe (Editor),The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe, Oxford University Press,New York (1994). R.J.Harrison,The Beaker Folk-Copper Age Archaeology in West- ern Europe,Thames and Hudson,London (1980). D.Lessem,The Iceman,Crown,New York (1994). R.F.Mehl,Brief History of the Science of Metals,AIME (1984). J.G.Parr,Man,Metals,and Modern Magic,Greenwood Press, Westport,CT(1958). R.Raymond,Out of the Fiery Furnace-The Impact of Metal on the History of Mankind,The Pennsylvania State University Press,University Park,PA (1984). B.Scheel,Egyptian Metalworking and Tools,Shire Publications, Aylesbury,UK (1989). C.S.Smith,Metallurgy as a Human Experience,ASM International (formerly American Society of Metals),Materials Park,OH (1977). K.Spindler,The Man in the Ice,Harmony,New York (1994). A.J.Wilson,The Living Rock,Woodhead Publications,Cam- bridge,UK (1994)

R.W. Cahn, The Coming of Materials Science, Pergamon/Amsterdam (2001). B. Cunliffe (Editor), The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe, Oxford University Press, New York (1994). R.J. Harrison, The Beaker Folk—Copper Age Archaeology in West￾ern Europe, Thames and Hudson, London (1980). D. Lessem, The Iceman, Crown, New York (1994). R.F. Mehl, Brief History of the Science of Metals, AIME (1984). J.G. Parr, Man, Metals, and Modern Magic, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT (1958). R. Raymond, Out of the Fiery Furnace—The Impact of Metal on the History of Mankind, The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA (1984). B. Scheel, Egyptian Metalworking and Tools, Shire Publications, Aylesbury, UK (1989). C.S. Smith, Metallurgy as a Human Experience, ASM International (formerly American Society of Metals), Materials Park, OH (1977). K. Spindler, The Man in the Ice, Harmony, New York (1994). A.J. Wilson, The Living Rock, Woodhead Publications, Cam￾bridge, UK (1994). Suggestions for Further Study 11 Suggestions for Further Study