上海交通大学：《材料与文明》课程教学资源（参考资料）Understanding Mater_Chapter 18 - Economic and Environmental Considerations

18 Economic and Environmental Considerations Materials scientists often need to advise other engineers who work in different and more specialized areas as to the best suit- ability of certain materials for specific applications.An airplane for example,requires light-weight and high-strength materials such as aluminum or titanium alloys,whereas rotor blades for turbine engines,which have to withstand extremely high tem- peratures,are better served by certain nickel alloys.However, cost,availability,safety,aesthetic appearance,and recyclability of materials likewise need substantial consideration.The latter issues shall be discussed in the present chapter. 18.1。Price Figure 18.1 depicts the price per unit weight of some typical in- dustrial materials between 1900 and 2000.It is observed in this graph that the expense for aluminum decreased in the first half of this century,mostly due to more efficient production tech- niques but also because domestic producers held the price for aluminum at a low steady level to improve their competitive edge against copper in the electrical industry.It can be further seen that,among the materials displayed in Figure 18.1,steel is still the least expensive one if one considers the price on a weight ba- sis.The relative price increases during the past 50 years are es- sentially alike for all depicted substances.Long-term changes in price are caused by increases in cost of labor,energy,trans-

18 Materials scientists often need to advise other engineers who work in different and more specialized areas as to the best suit￾ability of certain materials for specific applications. An airplane, for example, requires light-weight and high-strength materials such as aluminum or titanium alloys, whereas rotor blades for turbine engines, which have to withstand extremely high tem￾peratures, are better served by certain nickel alloys. However, cost, availability, safety, aesthetic appearance, and recyclability of materials likewise need substantial consideration. The latter issues shall be discussed in the present chapter. Figure 18.1 depicts the price per unit weight of some typical in￾dustrial materials between 1900 and 2000. It is observed in this graph that the expense for aluminum decreased in the first half of this century, mostly due to more efficient production tech￾niques but also because domestic producers held the price for aluminum at a low steady level to improve their competitive edge against copper in the electrical industry. It can be further seen that, among the materials displayed in Figure 18.1, steel is still the least expensive one if one considers the price on a weight ba￾sis. The relative price increases during the past 50 years are es￾sentially alike for all depicted substances. Long-term changes in price are caused by increases in cost of labor, energy, trans￾Economic and Environmental Considerations 18.1 • Price

374 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations 1.4 10 1.2 8 6 Sn 1.0 2 (punod/s) 0.8 60*70'80902000 0.6 0.4 0.2 Steel 0 1 1900*102030'40506070'80902000 Year FiGURE 18.1.The price per pound of some commonly used industrial materials from 1900 to 2000 in the United States.Prices are not cor- rected for inflation.For plastics,see Table 18.1.[Source:U.S.Bureau of Mines,U.S.Department of the Interior.] portation,and by the usage of leaner ores.Short-term fluctua- tions depend on speculators,supply and demand,and political factors such as strikes and wars.For example,the steep price in- creases in the late 1970s were caused by the OPEC oil embargo and by the removal of government price controls. It is interesting in this context to compare the prices of met- als with those of plastics.The prices of polymeric materials vary, however,with types and properties,and can therefore not be readily included in Figure 18.1.For this reason Table 18.1 lists the cost of plastics as published on August 4,2003.It is noticed that the cost of steel based on weight is essentially still lower than that for plastics.This is,however,not always true if the price is based on volume. 18.2.Production Volumes Figure 18.2 displays the production volumes of various materi- als over the past 16 years.It can be learned from this graph that timber and concrete are essentially the most widely used ma- terials in the United States.(It needs to be kept in mind that

portation, and by the usage of leaner ores. Short-term fluctua￾tions depend on speculators, supply and demand, and political factors such as strikes and wars. For example, the steep price in￾creases in the late 1970s were caused by the OPEC oil embargo and by the removal of government price controls. It is interesting in this context to compare the prices of met￾als with those of plastics. The prices of polymeric materials vary, however, with types and properties, and can therefore not be readily included in Figure 18.1. For this reason Table 18.1 lists the cost of plastics as published on August 4, 2003. It is noticed that the cost of steel based on weight is essentially still lower than that for plastics. This is, however, not always true if the price is based on volume. Figure 18.2 displays the production volumes of various materi￾als over the past 16 years. It can be learned from this graph that timber and concrete are essentially the most widely used ma￾terials in the United States. (It needs to be kept in mind that FIGURE 18.1. The price per pound of some commonly used industrial materials from 1900 to 2000 in the United States. Prices are not cor￾rected for inflation. For plastics, see Table 18.1. [Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior.] 374 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 Price ($/pound) 0.4 0.2 0 1900 ’10 ’60 2 4 6 8 Sn 10 ’70 ’80 ’90 2000 ’20 ’30 ’40 ’50 Year Steel Cu Sn Zn Al Pb Zn Al Cu ’60 ’70 ’80 ’90 2000 18.2 • Production Volumes

18.2 Production Volumes 375 TABLE 18.1.Average price of plastics (virgin and recycled)in dollars per pound as of 8-4-03 when bought at volumes between 2 and 5×10 pounds Material $1b. PVC resin (pipe grade) 0.48 Recycled PVC(clean,regrind,or flaked) 0.29 Polystyrene (high impact) 0.71 PET(PETE)packaging resin(for bottles,etc.) 0.73 ABS (high impact,for telephones,suitcases,etc.) 1.27 High-density polyethylene(HDPE)(for milk bottles) 0.54 Recycled HDPE (pellets) 0.36 LDPE (low density polyethylene)for grocery bags,wrappings 0.65 PP(polypropylene)yogurt containers,medicine bottles 0.50 Recycled PET(PETE)(clear,post-consumer,pellets) 0.61 Source:Plastics News,August 2003 the consumption of concrete is almost one order of magnitude larger than that of cement due to the addition of gravel and sand.This raises the output figures for concrete above the lev- els of timber and steel.)Also interesting to observe is the steady increase of polymer production over the past 16 years.It should be noted that,on a volume basis,light-weight aluminum and Timber 100 Crude Steel Cement suo] Plastics 10 Kaolin Al Wood pulp FIGURE 18.2.U.S.annual produc- Flat glass tion figures on a weight basis for various materials from 1984 Synthetic rubber Cu until 2000.[Source:Industrial Cotton Commodities Statistics Yearbook (2002),United Nations and US 848688 90929496 982000 Census Bureau(Flatglass).] Year

the consumption of concrete is almost one order of magnitude larger than that of cement due to the addition of gravel and sand. This raises the output figures for concrete above the lev￾els of timber and steel.) Also interesting to observe is the steady increase of polymer production over the past 16 years. It should be noted that, on a volume basis, light-weight aluminum and 18.2 • Production Volumes 375 TABLE 18.1. Average price of plastics (virgin and recycled) in dollars per pound as of 8-4-03 when bought at volumes between 2 and 5 106 pounds Material $/lb. PVC resin (pipe grade) 0.48 Recycled PVC (clean, regrind, or flaked) 0.29 Polystyrene (high impact) 0.71 PET (PETE) packaging resin (for bottles, etc.) 0.73 ABS (high impact, for telephones, suitcases, etc.) 1.27 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) (for milk bottles) 0.54 Recycled HDPE (pellets) 0.36 LDPE (low density polyethylene) for grocery bags, wrappings 0.65 PP (polypropylene) yogurt containers, medicine bottles 0.50 Recycled PET (PETE) (clear, post-consumer, pellets) 0.61 Source: Plastics News, August 2003 100 10 1 84 86 Year U.S. Production in million tons 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 Timber Cement Crude Steel Plastics Kaolin Al Wood pulp Cu Cotton Synthetic rubber Flat glass FIGURE 18.2. U.S. annual produc￾tion figures on a weight basis for various materials from 1984 until 2000. [Source: Industrial Commodities Statistics Yearbook (2002), United Nations and US Census Bureau (Flatglass).]

376 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations plastics are even more utilized than Figure 18.2 might suggest because the presented data are based on weight rather than on volume.Figure 7.2 depicts the world steel production. 18.3●World Reserves Next,the future availability and the remaining world's supply of raw materials need to be taken into consideration when design- ing an industrial product.Table 18.2 lists some data concerning current world productions and known world reserves for some minerals.Table 18.2 also reveals the number of years these sup- plies are projected to last if usage proceeds at the present rate and no new sources are discovered.As probably expected,iron, oil,and coal top the list by far with respect to world production. Some forecasters predict an exponential growth of usage for some materials.This would deplete the resources much faster than the above-assumed constant level of consumption.A spe- cific time interval,tp,may be defined,during which future con- sumption is predicted to have doubled,that is,tp=69/r,where TABLE 18.2.Annual world production and estimated world reserves of materials(data in 106 metric tons except for crude oil,which is given in 109 barrels (bbl),whereas 1 bbl of oil is 0.159 m3 or 0.18 tons).The production data are for 2000 and the world reserves from 2001/02 World World Years' Materials production reserve base supply Iron ore 620 160,000 258 Copper 13.0 650 50 Aluminum 30.1 6,600- 219 Lead 6.0 130 22 Zinc 8.8 450 51 Tin 0.3 11 37 Nickel 0.9 140 155 Silicon 4.5 Essentially unlimited Potash 25.0 17.000 680 Phosphate 41.4 37,000 894 Crude oil 27.9 1,047.5 38 Coal 4,343 984,453 227 World iron ore reserve base:330,000 X 106 tons.Two tons of iron ore yield approximately one ton of iron.Note:Scrap iron is not included. bBauxite world reserve:33,000 X 106 tons;Bauxite yields 1 ton of Al from 4 to 6 tons of ore. Sources:USBM,Mineral Commodity Summaries 2002,"World Oil,"Au- gust 2002,for crude oil,and "1999 Survey of Energy Resources,"World Energy Council for coal

plastics are even more utilized than Figure 18.2 might suggest because the presented data are based on weight rather than on volume. Figure 7.2 depicts the world steel production. Next, the future availability and the remaining world’s supply of raw materials need to be taken into consideration when design￾ing an industrial product. Table 18.2 lists some data concerning current world productions and known world reserves for some minerals. Table 18.2 also reveals the number of years these sup￾plies are projected to last if usage proceeds at the present rate and no new sources are discovered. As probably expected, iron, oil, and coal top the list by far with respect to world production. Some forecasters predict an exponential growth of usage for some materials. This would deplete the resources much faster than the above-assumed constant level of consumption. A spe￾cific time interval, tD, may be defined, during which future con￾sumption is predicted to have doubled, that is, tD
69/r, where 376 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations 18.3 • World Reserves TABLE 18.2. Annual world production and estimated world reserves of materials (data in 106 metric tons except for crude oil, which is given in 109 barrels (bbl), whereas 1 bbl of oil is 0.159 m3 or 0.18 tons). The production data are for 2000 and the world reserves from 2001/02. World World Years’ Materials production reserve base supply Iron ore 620 160,000a 258 Copper 13.0 650 50 Aluminum 30.1 6,600b 219 Lead 6.0 130 22 Zinc 8.8 450 51 Tin 0.3 11 37 Nickel 0.9 140 155 Silicon 4.5 Essentially unlimited Potash 25.0 17,000 680 Phosphate 41.4 37,000 894 Crude oil 27.9 1,047.5 38 Coal 4,343 984,453 227 aWorld iron ore reserve base: 330,000 106 tons. Two tons of iron ore yield approximately one ton of iron. Note: Scrap iron is not included. bBauxite world reserve: 33,000 106 tons; Bauxite yields 1 ton of Al from 4 to 6 tons of ore. Sources: USBM, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2002, “World Oil,” Au￾gust 2002, for crude oil, and “1999 Survey of Energy Resources,” World Energy Council for coal

18.3·World Reserves 377 r is the current rise in consumption per year in %(assuming ex- ponential growth).For example,if copper use increases by 8% per year,the consumption would double in 9 years.However,an increase in price and recycling may eventually slow down a too- rapid rise in consumption so that an exponential growth rate may not be encountered. Table 18.2 does not contain timber (a renewable material), which currently grows worldwide on about 3.4 x 109 hectares (27%of the land area)and whose 1995 world harvest was 1.4 X 109 m3.If used responsibly,and if substantial amounts of pulp are recycled(see below),the same amount of wood which has been harvested can probably be regrown.This would preserve the forests on all continents.However,between 1980 and 1990, the world lost an average of 9.95 X 106 hectares of net forest area annually,i.e.,roughly the size of South Korea.Most of the de- cline in forest area has occurred since 1950 and has been con- centrated in the tropical areas of developing countries to expand crop land,build cattle ranges,and extract timber.The temper- ate forests in industrial countries have essentially remained con- stant but consist largely of even-aged monoculture tree farms that do not support a high level of biodiversity as an ecologically com- plex natural forest does.Further,air pollution destroys large amounts of forests,particularly in Europe;specifically,26%of this continent's trees have moderate to severe defoliation.The world production of various forest products in different geo- graphic regions is listed in Table 18.3. The potential for fabricating polymeric materials depends largely on the availability of petroleum and coal.To illustrate Table 18.3 World wood production in 2000.Unit:106 m3,except wood pulp,which is given in 103 tons.Note:1 ton of sawn wood coniferous=1.82 m3;1 ton sawn wood broadleaved =1.43 m3;1 ton veneer sheets =1.33 m3;I ton plywood 1.54 m3;1 ton particle board 1.54m3. Sawn wood Sawn wood Veneer Particle Wood Country coniferous Broad-leaved sheets Plywood board pulp Africa 2.4 5.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.3 N.America 156.0 37.1 0.6 19.6 31.6 17.5 S.America 14.1 15.5 3.6 3.1 2.8 1.2 Asia 29.7 24.6 2.7 27.5 8.7 2.4 Europe 109.6 17.2 7.2 5.6 37.0 15.0 Oceania 6.5 1.7 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.2 Total 318.9 101.3 15.3 60.0 81.8 37.6 Source:2000 Industrial Commodities Statistics Yearbook,United Nations (2002). 1100n2

r is the current rise in consumption per year in % (assuming ex￾ponential growth).1 For example, if copper use increases by 8% per year, the consumption would double in 9 years. However, an increase in price and recycling may eventually slow down a too￾rapid rise in consumption so that an exponential growth rate may not be encountered. Table 18.2 does not contain timber (a renewable material), which currently grows worldwide on about 3.4 109 hectares (27% of the land area) and whose 1995 world harvest was 1.4 109 m3. If used responsibly, and if substantial amounts of pulp are recycled (see below), the same amount of wood which has been harvested can probably be regrown. This would preserve the forests on all continents. However, between 1980 and 1990, the world lost an average of 9.95 106 hectares of net forest area annually, i.e., roughly the size of South Korea. Most of the de￾cline in forest area has occurred since 1950 and has been con￾centrated in the tropical areas of developing countries to expand crop land, build cattle ranges, and extract timber. The temper￾ate forests in industrial countries have essentially remained con￾stant but consist largely of even-aged monoculture tree farms that do not support a high level of biodiversity as an ecologically com￾plex natural forest does. Further, air pollution destroys large amounts of forests, particularly in Europe; specifically, 26% of this continent’s trees have moderate to severe defoliation. The world production of various forest products in different geo￾graphic regions is listed in Table 18.3. The potential for fabricating polymeric materials depends largely on the availability of petroleum and coal. To illustrate 18.3 • World Reserves 377 1100 ln 2. Table 18.3 World wood production in 2000. Unit: 106 m3, except wood pulp, which is given in 103 tons. Note: 1 ton of sawn wood coniferous= 1.82 m3; 1 ton sawn wood broadleaved
1.43 m3; 1 ton veneer sheets = 1.33 m3; 1 ton plywood = 1.54 m3; 1 ton particle board
1.54 m3. Sawn wood Sawn wood Veneer Particle Wood Country coniferous Broad-leaved sheets Plywood board pulp Africa 2.4 5.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.3 N. America 156.0 37.1 0.6 19.6 31.6 17.5 S. America 14.1 15.5 3.6 3.1 2.8 1.2 Asia 29.7 24.6 2.7 27.5 8.7 2.4 Europe 109.6 17.2 7.2 5.6 37.0 15.0 Oceania 6.5 1.7 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.2 Total 318.9 101.3 15.3 60.0 81.8 37.6 Source: 2000 Industrial Commodities Statistics Yearbook, United Nations (2002)

378 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations Middle East 65.4% 687 FIGURE 18.3.Proved oil reserves at the end of 39 2002 for various geographical regions.The 99 97 77 50 reserves for the individual blocks(rounded) are given in 109 barrels.(They are printed Asia Pacific in white numbers.)The total proved world South and North 3.69% oil reserves at the end of 2002 is estimated Central Europe Africa America to be 1,047.5 x 109 bbl.Source:BP statisti- America Eurasia 7.39% 4.76% cal review of world energy,2003. 9.41% 9.31% this,Table 18.2 also lists the production and consumption data for crude oil and coal.It needs to be emphasized that only 2% of the consumed oil goes into the manufacturing of plastics,and 1%is used for pharmaceutical products.The remainder is burned as fuel.Figure 18.3 displays the known petroleum resources for various geographic regions. Table 18.4 lists the average daily oil production for the year 2002 for major oil-producing countries.It can be inferred from this table that the USA exploits its resources to a much larger de- gree in proportion to her known reserves,compared to most other countries (see Figure 18.3 and Table 18.4).Figure 18.4 depicts the world oil consumption from 1980 to 2002.The prices for plas- tics depend largely on the price of oil which fluctuates consid- erably over the years (mostly for political reasons).Figure 18.5 depicts crude oil prices from 1981 through 2003. To complete the overall picture,Table 18.5 provides the pro- duction figures and reserves for coal. It is alarming to note from Table 18.2 how fast some of our presently known reserves would deplete if the current consump- tion remains at the same level and if no new sources are discov- ered.This may be particularly true for oil,as shown in Figure 18.6. However,exploration efforts for the past 50 years have consistently yielded additional crude oil reserves that even exceed consump- tion at present,as depicted in Figure 18.7.Reserves are defined as deposits that can be profitably exploited using current tech- nologies at current prices.In other words,the reserves are directly affected by the market price.Moreover,deposits that are not ex- ploited within 20 years are considered to have little significant fi-

this, Table 18.2 also lists the production and consumption data for crude oil and coal. It needs to be emphasized that only 2% of the consumed oil goes into the manufacturing of plastics, and 1% is used for pharmaceutical products. The remainder is burned as fuel. Figure 18.3 displays the known petroleum resources for various geographic regions. Table 18.4 lists the average daily oil production for the year 2002 for major oil-producing countries. It can be inferred from this table that the USA exploits its resources to a much larger de￾gree in proportion to her known reserves, compared to most other countries (see Figure 18.3 and Table 18.4). Figure 18.4 depicts the world oil consumption from 1980 to 2002. The prices for plas￾tics depend largely on the price of oil which fluctuates consid￾erably over the years (mostly for political reasons). Figure 18.5 depicts crude oil prices from 1981 through 2003. To complete the overall picture, Table 18.5 provides the pro￾duction figures and reserves for coal. It is alarming to note from Table 18.2 how fast some of our presently known reserves would deplete if the current consump￾tion remains at the same level and if no new sources are discov￾ered. This may be particularly true for oil, as shown in Figure 18.6. However, exploration efforts for the past 50 years have consistently yielded additional crude oil reserves that even exceed consump￾tion at present, as depicted in Figure 18.7. Reserves are defined as deposits that can be profitably exploited using current tech￾nologies at current prices. In other words, the reserves are directly affected by the market price. Moreover, deposits that are not ex￾ploited within 20 years are considered to have little significant fi- 378 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations Middle East 65.4% Asia Pacific 3.69% Europe & Eurasia 9.31% South and Central America 9.41% Africa 7.39% North America 4.76% 687 99 97 77 50 39 FIGURE 18.3. Proved oil reserves at the end of 2002 for various geographical regions. The reserves for the individual blocks (rounded) are given in 109 barrels. (They are printed in white numbers.) The total proved world oil reserves at the end of 2002 is estimated to be 1,047.5 109 bbl. Source: BP statisti￾cal review of world energy, 2003

18.3·Vorld Reserves 379 TABLE 18.4.Average daily oil production in 2002 for various countries,given in 106 barrels Daily average Country oil production OECD! United States 9.00 Canada 2.93 Mexico 3.61 North Sea2 6.21 Other OECD 1.65 Total OECD 23.40 Non-OECD OPEC3 Crude Algeria 1.31 Indonesia 1.27 Iran 3.44 Iraq 2.02 Kuwait 1.89 Libya 1.32 Nigeria 2.12 Qatar 0.68 Saudi Arabia 7.63 United Arab Emirates 2.08 Venezuela 2.60 Natural Gas Plant Liquids 2.10 Refinery Processing Gain 0.06 Total OPEC 28.71 Former USSR 9.38 China 3.39 Other Non-OECD 11.45 Total Non-OECD 52.93 Total 76.33 1OECD=Organization for Economic Co-Opera- tion and Development. 2North Sea includes the United Kingdom Off- shore,Norway,Denmark,Netherlands Offshore, and Germany Offshore. 3OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Source:International Petroleum Monthly,June, 2003

18.3 • World Reserves 379 TABLE 18.4. Average daily oil production in 2002 for various countries, given in 106 barrels Daily average Country oil production OECD1 United States 9.00 Canada 2.93 Mexico 3.61 North Sea2 6.21 Other OECD 1.65 Total OECD 23.40 Non-OECD OPEC3 Crude Algeria 1.31 Indonesia 1.27 Iran 3.44 Iraq 2.02 Kuwait 1.89 Libya 1.32 Nigeria 2.12 Qatar 0.68 Saudi Arabia 7.63 United Arab Emirates 2.08 Venezuela 2.60 Natural Gas Plant Liquids 2.10 Refinery Processing Gain 0.06 Total OPEC 28.71 Former USSR 9.38 China 3.39 Other Non-OECD 11.45 Total Non-OECD 52.93 Total 76.33 1OECD
Organization for Economic Co-Opera￾tion and Development. 2North Sea includes the United Kingdom Off￾shore, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands Offshore, and Germany Offshore. 3OPEC
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Source: International Petroleum Monthly, June, 2003

380 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations 70 (sKep/slaueq % World total 50 是 40 30 Western Europe 20 USA 10 Eastern Europe former USSR Japan L1 Canada-P+--F土 80 8284868890929496 9820002002 Year FiGURE 18.4.Daily world petroleum (crude oil)consumption in selected countries during 1980 through 2002.(Source:"International Energy Annual 2003,"U.S.Department of Energy.) nancial value.Thus,any exploration efforts to find reserves beyond 20 years are generally not performed for economic reasons.On the other hand,the present coal deposits seem to last for a much longer time period.However,mining will become increasingly expensive and dangerous once greater depths must be confronted. 35 30- 25 20 15- 10- 5 0 19821984198619881990199219941996199820002002 Year FIGURE 18.5.Crude oil posted prices from 1981-2003.(Kern River oil field, 13 API gravity).Source:Chevron USA Inc.,crude oil price bulletins

nancial value. Thus, any exploration efforts to find reserves beyond 20 years are generally not performed for economic reasons. On the other hand, the present coal deposits seem to last for a much longer time period. However, mining will become increasingly expensive and dangerous once greater depths must be confronted. 380 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 80 82 84 World total Western Europe Eastern Europe & former USSR USA Japan 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 2000 2002 Year Consumption (103 barrels/days) Canada FIGURE 18.4. Daily world petroleum (crude oil) consumption in selected countries during 1980 through 2002. (Source: “International Energy Annual 2003,” U.S. Department of Energy.) FIGURE 18.5. Crude oil posted prices from 1981–2003. (Kern River oil field, 13° API gravity). Source: Chevron USA Inc., crude oil price bulletins. 1982 1984 1988 Dollars Per Barrel 1986 1992 1990 1994 1996 1998 Year 2000 2002 25 20 5 10 15 0 35 30

18.3·World Reserves 381 250 200 ■01 ▣Gas 1 50 0 Africa North South Asia Europe Middle Oceania Total America America East FiGURE 18.6.Schematic representation of the number of years the cur- rently known oil(and gas)reserves will last assuming the present con- sumption rate.Source:World Energy Council,London,2000. Developments to promote the usage of alcohol,rapeseed oil (for diesel motors),and other renewable energy sources are use- ful for environmental and possible long-range economic bene- fits.The seed of the rape plant(brassica napus,also called canola, swede or colza)contains about 40%oil,which is mainly used for cooking,soap production,and technical applications.The rape cake that remains after pressing the seeds is rich in proteins and is used as animal fodder.The rape plant is native to Europe but is also cultivated in China and India.Rapeseed oil has been the top oil produced in the European Union and now accounts for more than one third of the total European vegetable oil pro- duction.It has passed the consumption of soy oil.European leaders contemplate obtaining a certain independence from for- eign mineral oil by utilizing rapeseed oil for energy production and transportation.Since specialized engines need to be devel- oped for burning rapeseed oil,a different avenue has been found, (1qqzOIx)sanlasa I!o PLoM 0.8 FIGURE 18.7.Worldwide crude 0.6 oil reserves from 1955 to Rest of world 1995.(Source:"Oil and Gas 0.4 Journal,"March 1996.)The world oil reserves have re- 0.2 OPEC mained fairly stable since this figure was drawn.These 0 reserves at the end of 2002 1955 1960 1965 19701975 1980 1985 1990 1995 are listed as 1.05 X 1012 bbl; Year see Figure 18.3

Developments to promote the usage of alcohol, rapeseed oil (for diesel motors), and other renewable energy sources are use￾ful for environmental and possible long-range economic bene￾fits. The seed of the rape plant (brassica napus, also called canola, swede or colza) contains about 40% oil, which is mainly used for cooking, soap production, and technical applications. The rape cake that remains after pressing the seeds is rich in proteins and is used as animal fodder. The rape plant is native to Europe but is also cultivated in China and India. Rapeseed oil has been the top oil produced in the European Union and now accounts for more than one third of the total European vegetable oil pro￾duction. It has passed the consumption of soy oil. European leaders contemplate obtaining a certain independence from for￾eign mineral oil by utilizing rapeseed oil for energy production and transportation. Since specialized engines need to be devel￾oped for burning rapeseed oil, a different avenue has been found, 18.3 • World Reserves 381 FIGURE 18.6. Schematic representation of the number of years the cur￾rently known oil (and gas) reserves will last assuming the present con￾sumption rate. Source: World Energy Council, London, 2000. 250 50 100 200 150 0 Years Africa North America South America Asia Europe Middle East Oceania Total Oil Gas 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 World oil reserves ( 1012bbl) 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 OPEC Rest of world FIGURE 18.7. Worldwide crude oil reserves from 1955 to 1995. (Source: “Oil and Gas Journal,” March 1996.) The world oil reserves have re￾mained fairly stable since this figure was drawn. These reserves at the end of 2002 are listed as 1.05 1012 bbl; see Figure 18.3

382 18.Economic and Environmental Considerations TABLE 18.5.Proven recoverable world reserves for coal (bituminous coal including anthracite,subbituminous coal,and lignite;data for peat are omitted).Also listed are world production figures.(The numbers are given in 106 metric tons and are from 1999.) Region Production/Year Reserves Years'supply Asia 1,670 252,308 151 North America 1,080 257,906 239 Europe 1.007 312,686 310 Oceania 307 82,664 269 Africa 231 55,367 240 South America 46 21,752 473 Middle East 1 1,710 1710 Total World 4,343 984,453 227 Selected Countries USA 997 249,994 251 Russian Federation 249 157,010 630 China 1,030 114,500 111 India 314 84,396 269 Australia 304 82.090 270 Germany 202 66,000 327 South Africa 223 49,520 222 Ukraine 82 34,153 416 Poland 171 22,160 129 Canada 72 6,578 91 Mexico 10 1,211 121 Japan 773 193 North Korea 81 600 7 Source:"1999 Survey of Energy Resources,"published by the World En- ergy Council,London. Note:The estimates of coal reserves are rather vague.No standard for determining coal reserves exists. namely,to manufacture rapeseed methyl ester (RME)which can be utilized in regular diesel engines,but requires,on the other hand,an additional production process that consumes some of the contained energy.The CO2 emission of engines driven with RME is 60%less than when using diesel oil.Indeed,during the combustion of "bio-diesel"only as much carbon dioxide is gen- erated as the rape plant has taken up from the atmosphere dur- ing the growth phase.On the other hand,emission of CO2-equiv- alents result from the cultivation and the processing of rapeseed oil to RME and during the production of fertilizers and pesti- cides.(Note that natural gas combustion causes also less CO2 emission compared to diesel,specifically,by 52%.)The main

382 18 • Economic and Environmental Considerations TABLE 18.5. Proven recoverable world reserves for coal (bituminous coal including anthracite, subbituminous coal, and lignite; data for peat are omitted). Also listed are world production figures. (The numbers are given in 106 metric tons and are from 1999.) Region Production/Year Reserves Years’ supply Asia 1,670 252,308 151 North America 1,080 257,906 239 Europe 1,007 312,686 310 Oceania 307 82,664 269 Africa 231 55,367 240 South America 46 21,752 473 Middle East 1 1,710 1710 Total World 4,343 984,453 227 Selected Countries USA 997 249,994 251 Russian Federation 249 157,010 630 China 1,030 114,500 111 India 314 84,396 269 Australia 304 82,090 270 Germany 202 66,000 327 South Africa 223 49,520 222 Ukraine 82 34,153 416 Poland 171 22,160 129 Canada 72 6,578 91 Mexico 10 1,211 121 Japan 4 773 193 North Korea 81 600 7 Source: “1999 Survey of Energy Resources,” published by the World En￾ergy Council, London. Note: The estimates of coal reserves are rather vague. No standard for determining coal reserves exists. namely, to manufacture rapeseed methyl ester (RME) which can be utilized in regular diesel engines, but requires, on the other hand, an additional production process that consumes some of the contained energy. The CO2 emission of engines driven with RME is 60% less than when using diesel oil. Indeed, during the combustion of “bio-diesel” only as much carbon dioxide is gen￾erated as the rape plant has taken up from the atmosphere dur￾ing the growth phase. On the other hand, emission of CO2-equiv￾alents result from the cultivation and the processing of rapeseed oil to RME and during the production of fertilizers and pesti￾cides. (Note that natural gas combustion causes also less CO2 emission compared to diesel, specifically, by 52%.) The main