《英语翻译》课程教学资源（中华文化）Culture of the People's Republic of China.pdf_大学文库

hundreds of years.It was in an effort to promote literacy,but has brought about a number of debates. The artistic community was particularly affected by the Cultural Revolution.Initially only eight "Sample Acts",or propaganda performances,were allowed,along with the "Loyalty Dance",posters that deify Chairman Mao,and a large number of revolutionary songs such as The East Is Red.(See also Mao suit.) During the later stages of the Cultural Revolution,the Criticize Lin,Criticize Confucius campaign was a political campaign started by Mao Zedong's fourth wife Jiang Qing,which lasted from 1973 to 1974 and was an extension of the then-current anti-Lin Biao campaign,used to attack the then-Premier Zhou Enlai. Post-Mao era[edit] After the Maoist era,there has been a renaissance of traditional Chinese culture.Local religions including Buddhism,Taoism and Confucianism have flourished.These are not mutually exclusive,and many people practice a combination of the three along with elements of various folk religions.There has also been a revival of Chinese Islam and Christianity,although religious institutions remain under the control of the government.The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM)and the China Christian Council (CCC)are Protestant groups. The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CCPA)and the Chinese Catholic Bishops Council (CCBC)are subordinate to the government in Beijing,instead of to the Holy See. Traditional Chinese arts have also re-emerged from the Cultural Revolution,but their developments have been hampered by the Chinese society's ready acceptance of outside cultural influences,[citation aeeded particularly the popular culture of Hong Kong,which has a huge following inside the PRC.Nevertheless the television stations in the PRC have in recent years produced numerous quality drama series, covering everything from imperial history to modern-day police actions,and are gaining immense popularity in mainland China. The official enforcement of the One-Child Policy has created a generation of "Little Emperors"doted upon by their parents,made more so by the development of a Western-style consumer culture within the PRC.This initially revived a sense of xenophilia among the mainland Chinese population that originated in the colonial days of the late 19th century.However,as mainland China became an economic

hundreds of years. It was in an effort to promote literacy, but has brought about a number of debates. The artistic community was particularly affected by the Cultural Revolution. Initially only eight "Sample Acts", or propaganda performances, were allowed, along with the "Loyalty Dance", posters that deify Chairman Mao, and a large number of revolutionary songs such as The East Is Red. (See also Mao suit.) During the later stages of the Cultural Revolution, the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign was a political campaign started by Mao Zedong's fourth wife Jiang Qing, which lasted from 1973 to 1974 and was an extension of the then-current anti-Lin Biao campaign, used to attack the then-Premier Zhou Enlai. Post-Mao era[edit] After the Maoist era, there has been a renaissance of traditional Chinese culture. Local religions including Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism have flourished. These are not mutually exclusive, and many people practice a combination of the three along with elements of various folk religions. There has also been a revival of Chinese Islam and Christianity, although religious institutions remain under the control of the government. The Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and the China Christian Council (CCC) are Protestant groups. The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CCPA) and the Chinese Catholic Bishops Council (CCBC) are subordinate to the government in Beijing, instead of to the Holy See. Traditional Chinese arts have also re-emerged from the Cultural Revolution, but their developments have been hampered by the Chinese society's ready acceptance of outside cultural influences,[citation needed] particularly the popular culture of Hong Kong, which has a huge following inside the PRC. Nevertheless the television stations in the PRC have in recent years produced numerous quality drama series, covering everything from imperial history to modern-day police actions, and are gaining immense popularity in mainland China. The official enforcement of the One-Child Policy has created a generation of "Little Emperors" doted upon by their parents, made more so by the development of a Western-style consumer culture within the PRC. This initially revived a sense of xenophilia among the mainland Chinese population that originated in the colonial days of the late 19th century. However, as mainland China became an economic

power in its own right,the PRC government has intentionally fostered a sense of patriotic pride amongst the mainland Chinese population, which some critics see as a resurgence of Chinese nationalism.[citation needed Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s mainland China became exposed to more western elements,notably pop culture.American cinema is popular.Young people gather late at night in bars and nightclubs.There is a growing obsession with brand names.Teen slang is incorporating western language.China has also developed a unique cell phone culture,as it has the most mobile phone users in the world;as well as being the country with the most internet users in the world. Literature[edit] Main article:Chinese literature Modern prose[edit] In the New Culture Movement (1917-23),literary writing style was largely replaced by the vernacular in all areas of literature.This was brought about mainly by Lu Xun (1881-1936),China's first major stylist in vernacular prose (other than the novel),and the literary reformers Hu Shi (1891-1962)and Chen Duxiu (1880-1942). The late 1920s and 1930s were years of creativity in Chinese fiction, and literary journals and societies espousing various artistic theories proliferated.Among the major writers of the period were Guo Moruo (1892-1978),a poet,historian,essayist,and critic;Mao Dun (1896-1981),the first of the novelists to emerge from the League of Left-Wing Writers and one whose work reflected the revolutionary struggle and disillusionment of the late 1920s;and Ba Jin (1904- 2005),a novelist whose work was influenced by Ivan Turgenev and other Russian writers.In the 1930s Ba Jin produced a trilogy that depicted the struggle of modern youth against the age-old dominance of the Confucian family system.Comparison often is made between lia (Family),one of the novels in the trilogy,and Hong Lou Meng. Another writer of the period was the gifted satirist and novelist Lao She (1899-1966).Many of these writers became important as administrators of artistic and literary policy after 1949.Most of those still alive during the Cultural Revolution were either purged or forced to submit to public humiliation

power in its own right, the PRC government has intentionally fostered a sense of patriotic pride amongst the mainland Chinese population, which some critics see as a resurgence of Chinese nationalism. [citation needed] Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s mainland China became exposed to more western elements, notably pop culture. American cinema is popular. Young people gather late at night in bars and nightclubs. There is a growing obsession with brand names. Teen slang is incorporating western language. China has also developed a unique cell phone culture, as it has the most mobile phone users in the world; as well as being the country with the most internet users in the world. Literature[edit] Main article: Chinese literature Modern prose[edit] In the New Culture Movement (1917–23), literary writing style was largely replaced by the vernacular in all areas of literature. This was brought about mainly by Lu Xun (1881–1936), China's first major stylist in vernacular prose (other than the novel), and the literary reformers Hu Shi (1891–1962) and Chen Duxiu (1880–1942). The late 1920s and 1930s were years of creativity in Chinese fiction, and literary journals and societies espousing various artistic theories proliferated. Among the major writers of the period were Guo Moruo (1892–1978), a poet, historian, essayist, and critic; Mao Dun (1896–1981), the first of the novelists to emerge from the League of Left-Wing Writers and one whose work reflected the revolutionary struggle and disillusionment of the late 1920s; and Ba Jin (1904– 2005), a novelist whose work was influenced by Ivan Turgenev and other Russian writers. In the 1930s Ba Jin produced a trilogy that depicted the struggle of modern youth against the age-old dominance of the Confucian family system. Comparison often is made between Jia (Family), one of the novels in the trilogy, and Hong Lou Meng. Another writer of the period was the gifted satirist and novelist Lao She (1899–1966). Many of these writers became important as administrators of artistic and literary policy after 1949. Most of those still alive during the Cultural Revolution were either purged or forced to submit to public humiliation

The League of Left-Wing Writers was founded in 1930 and included Lu Xun in its leadership.By 1932 it had adopted the Soviet doctrine of socialist realism,that is,the insistence that art must concentrate on contemporary events in a realistic way,exposing the ills of nonsocialist society and promoting the glorious future under communism.After 1949 socialist realism,based on Mao's famous 1942 "Yan'an Talks on Literature and Art,became the uniform style of Chinese authors whose works were published.Conflict,however,soon developed between the government and the writers.The ability to satirize and expose the evils in contemporary society that had made writers useful to the Chinese Communist Party before its accession to power was no longer welcomed.Even more unwelcome to the party was the persistence among writers of what was deplored as "petty bourgeois idealism,""humanitarianism,"and an insistence on freedom to choose subject matter. At the time of the Great Leap Forward,the government increased its insistence on the use of socialist realism and combined with it so- called revolutionary realism and revolutionary romanticism.Authors were permitted to write about contemporary China,as well as other times during China's modern period -as long as it was accomplished with the desired socialist revolutionary realism.Nonetheless,the political restrictions discouraged many writers.Although authors were encouraged to write,production of literature fell off to the point that in 1962 only forty-two novels were published. During the Cultural Revolution,the repression and intimidation led by Mao's fourth wife,Jiang Qing,succeeded in drying up all cultural activity except a few "model"operas and heroic stories.Although it has since been learned that some writers continued to produce in secret,during that period no significant literary work was published. Literature in the Post-Mao period[edit] The arrest of Jiang Qing and the other members of the Gang of Four in 1976,and especially the reforms initiated at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee in December 1978, led more and more older writers and some younger writers to take up their pens again.Much of the literature discussed the serious abuses of power that had taken place at both the national and the local levels during the Cultural Revolution.The writers decried the waste of time and talent during that decade and bemoaned abuses that had held China back.At the same time,the writers expressed eagerness to

The League of Left-Wing Writers was founded in 1930 and included Lu Xun in its leadership. By 1932 it had adopted the Soviet doctrine of socialist realism, that is, the insistence that art must concentrate on contemporary events in a realistic way, exposing the ills of nonsocialist society and promoting the glorious future under communism. After 1949 socialist realism, based on Mao's famous 1942 "Yan'an Talks on Literature and Art," became the uniform style of Chinese authors whose works were published. Conflict, however, soon developed between the government and the writers. The ability to satirize and expose the evils in contemporary society that had made writers useful to the Chinese Communist Party before its accession to power was no longer welcomed. Even more unwelcome to the party was the persistence among writers of what was deplored as "petty bourgeois idealism," "humanitarianism," and an insistence on freedom to choose subject matter. At the time of the Great Leap Forward, the government increased its insistence on the use of socialist realism and combined with it socalled revolutionary realism and revolutionary romanticism. Authors were permitted to write about contemporary China, as well as other times during China's modern period - as long as it was accomplished with the desired socialist revolutionary realism. Nonetheless, the political restrictions discouraged many writers. Although authors were encouraged to write, production of literature fell off to the point that in 1962 only forty-two novels were published. During the Cultural Revolution, the repression and intimidation led by Mao's fourth wife, Jiang Qing, succeeded in drying up all cultural activity except a few "model" operas and heroic stories. Although it has since been learned that some writers continued to produce in secret, during that period no significant literary work was published. Literature in the Post-Mao period[edit] The arrest of Jiang Qing and the other members of the Gang of Four in 1976, and especially the reforms initiated at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee in December 1978, led more and more older writers and some younger writers to take up their pens again. Much of the literature discussed the serious abuses of power that had taken place at both the national and the local levels during the Cultural Revolution. The writers decried the waste of time and talent during that decade and bemoaned abuses that had held China back. At the same time, the writers expressed eagerness to

make a contribution to building Chinese society.This literature, often called "the literature of the wounded,"contained some disquieting views of the party and the political system.Intensely patriotic,these authors wrote cynically of the political leadership that gave rise to the extreme chaos and disorder of the Cultural Revolution.Some of them extended the blame to the entire generation of leaders and to the political system itself.The political authorities were faced with a serious problem:how could they encourage writers to criticize and discredit the abuses of the Cultural Revolution without allowing that criticism to go beyond what they considered tolerable limits. During this period,a large number of novels and short stories were published;literary magazines from before the Cultural Revolution were revived,and new ones were added to satisfy the seemingly insatiable appetite of the reading public.There was a special interest in foreign works.Linguists were commissioned to translate recently published foreign literature,often without carefully considering its interest for the Chinese reader.Literary magazines specializing in translations of foreign short stories became very popular,especially among the young. It is not surprising that such dramatic change brought objections from some leaders in government and literary and art circles,who feared it was happening too fast.The first reaction came in 1980 with calls to combat "bourgeois liberalism,a campaign that was repeated in 1981.These two difficult periods were followed by the campaign against spiritual pollution in late 1983,but by 1986 writers were again enjoying greater creative freedom (see Chinese intellectualism). Traditional arts[edit] Drama[edit] Traditional drama,often called "Chinese opera,"grew out of the zaju (variety plays)of the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)and continues to exist in 368 different forms,the best known of which is Beijing Opera,which assumed its present form in the mid-nineteenth century and was extremely popular in the Qing dynasty (1644-1911)court.In Beijing Opera,traditional Chinese string instrument and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion:gestures,footwork,and other body

make a contribution to building Chinese society. This literature, often called "the literature of the wounded," contained some disquieting views of the party and the political system. Intensely patriotic, these authors wrote cynically of the political leadership that gave rise to the extreme chaos and disorder of the Cultural Revolution. Some of them extended the blame to the entire generation of leaders and to the political system itself. The political authorities were faced with a serious problem: how could they encourage writers to criticize and discredit the abuses of the Cultural Revolution without allowing that criticism to go beyond what they considered tolerable limits. During this period, a large number of novels and short stories were published; literary magazines from before the Cultural Revolution were revived, and new ones were added to satisfy the seemingly insatiable appetite of the reading public. There was a special interest in foreign works. Linguists were commissioned to translate recently published foreign literature, often without carefully considering its interest for the Chinese reader. Literary magazines specializing in translations of foreign short stories became very popular, especially among the young. It is not surprising that such dramatic change brought objections from some leaders in government and literary and art circles, who feared it was happening too fast. The first reaction came in 1980 with calls to combat "bourgeois liberalism," a campaign that was repeated in 1981. These two difficult periods were followed by the campaign against spiritual pollution in late 1983, but by 1986 writers were again enjoying greater creative freedom (see Chinese intellectualism). Traditional arts[edit] Drama[edit] Traditional drama, often called "Chinese opera," grew out of the zaju (variety plays) of the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) and continues to exist in 368 different forms, the best known of which is Beijing Opera, which assumed its present form in the mid-nineteenth century and was extremely popular in the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) court. In Beijing Opera, traditional Chinese string instrument and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion: gestures, footwork, and other body

movements express such actions as riding a horse,rowing a boat,or opening a door.Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech,the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns.Character roles are strictly defined.The traditional repertoire of Beijing Opera includes more than 1,000 works,mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles. In the early years of the People's Republic,the development of Beijing Opera was encouraged;many new operas on historical and modern themes were written,and earlier operas continued to be performed.As a popular art form,opera has usually been the first of the arts to reflect changes in Chinese policy.In the mid-1950s,for example,it was the first to benefit under the Hundred Flowers Campaign.Similarly,the attack in November 1965 on Beijing deputy mayor Wu Han and his historical play,"Hai Rui's Dismissal from Office,"signaled the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.During the Cultural Revolution,most opera troupes were disbanded, performers and scriptwriters were persecuted,and all operas except the eight "model operas"approved by Jiang Qing and her associates were banned.After the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976,Beijing Opera enjoyed a revival and continued to be a very popular form of entertainment both in theaters and on television. In traditional Chinese theater,no plays were performed in the vernacular or without singing.But at the turn of the twentieth century,Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays.Following the May Fourth Movement of 1919,a number of Western plays were staged in China,and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form.The most notable of the new-style playwrights was Cao Yu (1910-1996).His major works "Thunderstorm,”"Sunrise,”"Wilderness,”and"Peking Man”-written between 1934 and 1940,have been widely read in China. In the 1930s,theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist-controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy.By the 1940s theater was well established in the Communist-controlled areas. In the early years of the People's Republic,Western-style theater was presented mainly in the form of "socialist realism."During the Cultural Revolution,however,Western-style plays were condemned as "dead drama"and "poisonous weeds"and were not performed

movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech, the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns. Character roles are strictly defined. The traditional repertoire of Beijing Opera includes more than 1,000 works, mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles. In the early years of the People's Republic, the development of Beijing Opera was encouraged; many new operas on historical and modern themes were written, and earlier operas continued to be performed. As a popular art form, opera has usually been the first of the arts to reflect changes in Chinese policy. In the mid-1950s, for example, it was the first to benefit under the Hundred Flowers Campaign. Similarly, the attack in November 1965 on Beijing deputy mayor Wu Han and his historical play, "Hai Rui's Dismissal from Office," signaled the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, most opera troupes were disbanded, performers and scriptwriters were persecuted, and all operas except the eight "model operas" approved by Jiang Qing and her associates were banned. After the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, Beijing Opera enjoyed a revival and continued to be a very popular form of entertainment both in theaters and on television. In traditional Chinese theater, no plays were performed in the vernacular or without singing. But at the turn of the twentieth century, Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Following the May Fourth Movement of 1919, a number of Western plays were staged in China, and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form. The most notable of the new-style playwrights was Cao Yu (1910–1996). His major works - "Thunderstorm," "Sunrise," "Wilderness," and "Peking Man" - written between 1934 and 1940, have been widely read in China. In the 1930s, theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist-controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy. By the 1940s theater was well established in the Communist-controlled areas. In the early years of the People's Republic, Western-style theater was presented mainly in the form of "socialist realism." During the Cultural Revolution, however, Western-style plays were condemned as "dead drama" and "poisonous weeds" and were not performed

Chinese vocal music has traditionally been sung in a thin, nonresonant voice or in falsetto and is usually solo rather than choral.All traditional Chinese music is melodic rather than harmonic.Instrumental music is played on solo instruments or in small ensembles of plucked and bowed stringed instruments,flutes, and various cymbals,gongs,and drums.The scale has five notes. The New Culture Movement of the 1910s and 1920s evoked a great deal of lasting interest in Western music as a number of Chinese musicians who had studied abroad returned to perform Western classical music and to compose works of their own based on the Western musical notation system.Symphony orchestras were formed in most major cities and performed to a wide audience in the concert halls and on radio. Popular music greatly influenced by Western music,especially that of the United States -also gained a wide audience in the 1940s. After the 1942 Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art,a large-scale campaign was launched in the Communist-controlled areas to adapt folk music to create revolutionary songs to educate the largely illiterate rural population on party goals. 口 A performance at the 2007 Midi Modern Music Festival in Beijing. After the establishment of the People's Republic,revolutionary songs continued to be performed,and much of the remainder of popular music consisted of popular songs from the Soviet Union with the lyrics translated into Chinese.Symphony orchestras flourished throughout the country,performing Western classical music and compositions by Chinese composers.Conservatories and other institutions of musical instruction were developed and expanded in the major cities.A number of orchestras from Eastern Europe performed in China,and Chinese musicians and musical groups participated in a wide variety of international festivals. During the height of the Cultural Revolution,musical composition and performance were greatly restricted.After the Cultural Revolution, musical institutions were reinstated and musical composition and

Chinese vocal music has traditionally been sung in a thin, nonresonant voice or in falsetto and is usually solo rather than choral. All traditional Chinese music is melodic rather than harmonic. Instrumental music is played on solo instruments or in small ensembles of plucked and bowed stringed instruments, flutes, and various cymbals, gongs, and drums. The scale has five notes. The New Culture Movement of the 1910s and 1920s evoked a great deal of lasting interest in Western music as a number of Chinese musicians who had studied abroad returned to perform Western classical music and to compose works of their own based on the Western musical notation system. Symphony orchestras were formed in most major cities and performed to a wide audience in the concert halls and on radio. Popular music - greatly influenced by Western music, especially that of the United States - also gained a wide audience in the 1940s. After the 1942 Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art, a large-scale campaign was launched in the Communist-controlled areas to adapt folk music to create revolutionary songs to educate the largely illiterate rural population on party goals. A performance at the 2007 Midi Modern Music Festival in Beijing. After the establishment of the People's Republic, revolutionary songs continued to be performed, and much of the remainder of popular music consisted of popular songs from the Soviet Union with the lyrics translated into Chinese. Symphony orchestras flourished throughout the country, performing Western classical music and compositions by Chinese composers. Conservatories and other institutions of musical instruction were developed and expanded in the major cities. A number of orchestras from Eastern Europe performed in China, and Chinese musicians and musical groups participated in a wide variety of international festivals. During the height of the Cultural Revolution, musical composition and performance were greatly restricted. After the Cultural Revolution, musical institutions were reinstated and musical composition and

performance revived.In 1980 the Chinese Musicians'Association was formally elected to the International Musicological Society.Chinese musical groups toured foreign countries,and foreign musical organizations performed in China.In the mid-1980s popular ballads and Western folk and classical music still drew the greatest audiences,but other kinds of music,including previously banned Western jazz and rock and roll,were being performed and were receiving increasing acceptance,especially among young people. Painting and calligraphy[edit] In imperial times,painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs-aristocrats and scholar-officials who alone had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork.Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting.The implements were the brush pen,made of animal hair,and black inks made from pine soot and animal glue.In ancient times,writing,as well as painting,was done on silk.But after the invention of paper in the first century CE, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material.Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are. Painting in the traditional style involves essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink:oils are not used.As with calligraphy,the most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk.The finished work is then mounted on scrolls,which can be hung or rolled up.Traditional painting also is done in albums and on walls, lacquerwork,and other media. Beginning in the Tang dynasty (CE 618-907),the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape,known as shanshui (mountain- water)painting.In these landscapes,usually monochromatic and sparse,the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm"of nature.In Song dynasty (960-1279)times,landscapes of more subtle expression appeared;immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines,mountain contours disappearing into the mist,and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena.Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony

performance revived. In 1980 the Chinese Musicians' Association was formally elected to the International Musicological Society. Chinese musical groups toured foreign countries, and foreign musical organizations performed in China. In the mid-1980s popular ballads and Western folk and classical music still drew the greatest audiences, but other kinds of music, including previously banned Western jazz and rock and roll, were being performed and were receiving increasing acceptance, especially among young people. Painting and calligraphy[edit] In imperial times, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs - aristocrats and scholar-officials - who alone had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush pen, made of animal hair, and black inks made from pine soot and animal glue. In ancient times, writing, as well as painting, was done on silk. But after the invention of paper in the first century CE, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are. Painting in the traditional style involves essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils are not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk. The finished work is then mounted on scrolls, which can be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting also is done in albums and on walls, lacquerwork, and other media. Beginning in the Tang dynasty (CE 618-907), the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape, known as shanshui (mountainwater) painting. In these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature. In Song dynasty (960-1279) times, landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony