Tyler Cot Does globalization kill ethos and diversity? B asketball. Nike. McDonald'sM and Madonna are now available in most parts of the world, no matter how poor or remote. It is therefore no surprise that critics, such as Benjamin Barber and John gray, fear for the future of world culture. They charge that the world is becoming one big shopping mall, causing non-Western cultures(and perhaps Western culture as well)to falter in their artistic creativity. The notion of ethos describes the special feel or flavor of a culture. We can think of ethos as a background set of assumptions for viewing the world. Th combination of ethos and technique gives a creative era its particular "feel or its stylistic and emotional core. In short, the fear is that the world will end up with a single ethos, and an unattractive one at that. I wish to offer a more optimistic perspective on global culture. My vision of globalized culture looks to Hong Kong cinema, the novels of Garcia Marque aboriginal art, and the amazing proliferation of ethnic dining Marquez, the Cuban music of Buena Vista Social Club, the successes of Culture lovers have never had more quality choices than today, and artists have never had more opportunities to reach audiences. Insofar as we have a global shopping mall, "it delivers many diverse styles to eager fans around the world. To see why I hold these optimistic views, let us step back and examine how trade influences ethos FRAGILITY AND THE PROBLEMS OF ETHOS n ethos can be weakened or destroyed by external influences. Artists can lose their creativity if they learn too much about other approaches Contemporary musician Beck, an eclectic purveyor of rock, country, and blues, makes the point succinctly: "You cant write a pure country song any more. You can't write a pure Appalachian ballad. Because we live in a world where we've all heard speed-metal, we've all heard drum-and-bass, we've all heard old-school hip-hop. Even if you're not influenced by it, or you're not using elements of it, they're in your mind. Some degree of isolation can inject self-confidence and a sense of magi into an art. Many creators view their endeavors as imbued with great reli gious and mythic significance, and as having central importance for the unfolding of history. In reality they may be just another craftsperson in the eyes of most observers, but their creativity will be greater if this knowledge is not rubbed in their faces. Art and creative power, to some extent, rest on illu sion and delusion most of all in the minds of artists That being said, ethos relies on trade as much as on isolation. It is no accident that Classical civilization developed in the Mediterranean, where cul tures used sea transport to trade with each other and learn from each other. Trade relations spread the spirit of learning throughout Europe during late PHIAPPA PEI FORUMWNOL 83. No, 4 17
1 6 Fall 2003 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/Vol. 83, No. 4 1 7 Basketball, NikeTM, McDonald’sTM, and Madonna are now available in most parts of the world, no matter how poor or remote. It is therefore no surprise that critics, such as Benjamin Barber and John Gray, fear for the future of world culture. They charge that the world is becoming one big shopping mall, causing non-Western cultures (and perhaps Western culture as well) to falter in their artistic creativity. The notion of ethos describes the special feel or flavor of a culture. We can think of ethos as a background set of assumptions for viewing the world. The combination of ethos and technique gives a creative era its particular “feel,” or its stylistic and emotional core. In short, the fear is that the world will end up with a single ethos, and an unattractive one at that. I wish to offer a more optimistic perspective on global culture. My vision of globalized culture looks to Hong Kong cinema, the novels of García Márquez, the Cuban music of Buena Vista Social Club, the successes of Australian Aboriginal art, and the amazing proliferation of ethnic dining. Culture lovers have never had more quality choices than today, and artists have never had more opportunities to reach audiences. Insofar as we have a “global shopping mall,” it delivers many diverse styles to eager fans around the world. To see why I hold these optimistic views, let us step back and examine how trade influences ethos. FRAGILITY AND THE PROBLEMS OF ETHOS An ethos can be weakened or destroyed by external influences. Artists can lose their creativity if they learn too much about other approaches. Contemporary musician Beck, an eclectic purveyor of rock, country, and blues, makes the point succinctly: “You can’t write a pure country song any more. You can’t write a pure Appalachian ballad. Because we live in a world where we’ve all heard speed-metal, we’ve all heard drum-and-bass, we’ve all heard old-school hip-hop. Even if you’re not influenced by it, or you’re not using elements of it, they’re in your mind.” Some degree of isolation can inject self-confidence and a sense of magic into an art. Many creators view their endeavors as imbued with great reli - gious and mythic significance, and as having central importance for the unfolding of history. In reality, they may be just another craftsperson in the eyes of most observers, but their creativity will be greater if this knowledge is not rubbed in their faces. Art and creative power, to some extent, rest on illu - sion and delusion, most of all in the minds of artists. That being said, ethos relies on trade as much as on isolation. It is no accident that Classical civilization developed in the Mediterranean, where cul - tures used sea transport to trade with each other and learn from each other. Trade relations spread the spirit of learning throughout Europe during late Tyler Cowen Does Globalization Kill Ethos and Diversity?
DOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? medieval times, starting in northern France, the Low were synthetic products of American, Asian, and ers,manuscripts, and scientific ideas gave birth aint. Countries, and Italy. The mobility of scholars Polynesian styles the renaissance and its artistic glories. The develop- ment of the United States. another formative event THE MINERVA MODEL tence to trade and resource mobili ory in Western history and cultural history owes its exis- ross-cultural contact often mobilizes the fruitful- ness of an ethos before disrupting or destroying It is impossible to look at culture without notic it. We see a common pattern. The initial meeting of ing the importance of trade. For instance, Jamaican cultures produces a creative explosion, as individuals music did not take off until African-American trade materials, technologies, and ideas. Often the rhythm and blues music was imported. Jamaican materially wealthier culture provides financial sup migrant sugar workers were exposed to r&b dur- port for the creations of the poorer culture, while the ng their trips to the americar South in the late 1940s. and In this scenario, a burst For a while we have the best of both they brought back a taste for the of creative flowering worlds from a cultural point of view music. In the 1950s, Jamaican Over time, however, the larger or listeners picked up rhythm and precedes the decline of wealthier culture upsets the balance blues broadcasts from New of forces that ruled in the smaller or Orleans and miami radio. louis a culture and an ethos. poorer culture. The poorer culture Jordan, Fats Domino, and Even when two(or begins to direct its outputs towards Chuck Berry were especially the tastes of the richer culture popular in Jamaica. Jamaicans more)cultures do not Communication with the outside ended to prefer loping, less hur- railing ethos less ried rhythms, rather than the prove compatible in the distinct. The smaller culture "forgets Delta Blues of Howlin'Wolf and long run, they may pro- ntow to make the high-quality goods Muddy Waters; this continues it once specialized in, and we observe to be reflected in reggae music. duce remarkable short- cultural decline The Jamaican ska tunes of the early 1960s, the first break run gains from trade I refer to this as the minerva through for Jamaican music, model.“ Minerva” refers to Hegels reveal strong influences from Alternatively, it may be statement that"The owl of Minerva doo-wop, swing, crooners, and flies only at dusk, "by which he the softer forms of rhythm and said that cultural booms meant that philosophic understand blues. Sam Cooke and Nat King contain the seeds of their ing comes in civilizations that have Cole remain beloved in Jamaica already reached their peak. I rein to this day. The early ska styl own destruction terpret the metaphor to refer to cul- then blossomed into reggae tural brilliance instead which in this dancehall, and other musical forms, commonly sell context occurs just when a particular culture is starting its decline. In this scenario, a burst ing to wealthier American and British customers. of creative flowering precedes the decline of a culture The culture of the Hawaiian islands. rather than and an ethos. Even when two(or more) cultures withering immediately with foreign contact, blos do not prove compatible in the long run, they may somed in the late nineteenth and early twentiet produce remarkable short-run gains from trade centuries. The combination of pacific. American Alternatively, it may be said that cultural booms con- Japanese, and Chinese influences created a fertile tain the seeds of their own destruction creative environment. In music, Hawaian perform ers have been seminal influences behind the devel The Minerva model applies best when gains opment of country-and-western, pedal-steel guitar. from trade are based on a cultural imbalance. for blues, jazz, and fingerpicking guitar styles, as well as instance. American Indian arts and crafts flourished modern "lounge"music. In each case the Hawaiians until shortly before their (temporary) collapse early innovated within established Western forms, or relied in the twentieth century. The most accomplished arts of the Plains Indians used crayons, pencils, clothes, partly on Western inspiration. The Hawaiian stee h yarns, mirrors, bells, brass tacks, and glass beads, litar, for instance, was actually invented by a Cze metals, bright paint pigments, papers, dyed-wool all drawn from European culture. The woodsplint- part of the nineteenth century and in the early part basketry technique of many Indian tribes appears of the twentieth. Like hawaiian music. these works to have been European in origin, probably Swedish. The kachina dolls of the Hopi flowered in the nine-
18 Fall 2003 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/Vol. 83, No. 4 19 medieval times, starting in northern France, the Low Countries, and Italy. The mobility of scholars, painters, manuscripts, and scientific ideas gave birth to the Renaissance and its artistic glories. The development of the United States, another formative event in Western history and cultural history, owes its existence to trade and resource mobility. It is impossible to look at culture without noticing the importance of trade. For instance, Jamaican music did not take off until African-American rhythm and blues music was imported. Jamaican migrant sugar workers were exposed to R&B during their trips to the American South in the late 1940s, and they brought back a taste for the music. In the 1950s, Jamaican listeners picked up rhythm and blues broadcasts from New Orleans and Miami radio. Louis Jordan, Fats Domino, and Chuck Berry were especially popular in Jamaica. (Jamaicans tended to prefer loping, less hurried rhythms, rather than the Delta Blues of Howlin’ Wolf and Muddy Waters; this continues to be reflected in reggae music.) The Jamaican ska tunes of the early 1960s, the first breakthrough for Jamaican music, reveal strong influences from doo-wop, swing, crooners, and the softer forms of rhythm and blues. Sam Cooke and Nat King Cole remain beloved in Jamaica to this day. The early ska style then blossomed into reggae, dancehall, and other musical forms, commonly selling to wealthier American and British customers. The culture of the Hawaiian islands, rather than withering immediately with foreign contact, blossomed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The combination of Pacific, American, Japanese, and Chinese influences created a fertile creative environment. In music, Hawaiian performers have been seminal influences behind the development of country-and-western, pedal-steel guitar, blues, jazz, and fingerpicking guitar styles, as well as modern “lounge” music. In each case the Hawaiians innovated within established Western forms, or relied partly on Western inspiration. The Hawaiian steel guitar, for instance, was actually invented by a Czech immigrant living in California. Hawaii also produced many superb handwoven quilts in the latter part of the nineteenth century and in the early part of the twentieth. Like Hawaiian music, these works were synthetic products of American, Asian, and Polynesian styles. THE MINERVA MODEL Cross-cultural contact often mobilizes the fruitfulness of an ethos before disrupting or destroying it. We see a common pattern. The initial meeting of cultures produces a creative explosion, as individuals trade materials, technologies, and ideas. Often the materially wealthier culture provides financial support for the creations of the poorer culture, while the native ethos remains largely intact. For a while we have the best of both worlds from a cultural point of view. Over time, however, the larger or wealthier culture upsets the balance of forces that ruled in the smaller or poorer culture. The poorer culture begins to direct its outputs towards the tastes of the richer culture. Communication with the outside world makes the prevailing ethos less distinct. The smaller culture “forgets” how to make the high-quality goods it once specialized in, and we observe cultural decline. I refer to this as the Minerva model. “Minerva” refers to Hegel’s statement that “The owl of Minerva flies only at dusk,” by which he meant that philosophic understanding comes in civilizations that have already reached their peak. I reinterpret the metaphor to refer to cultural brilliance instead, which in this context occurs just when a particular culture is starting its decline. In this scenario, a burst of creative flowering precedes the decline of a culture and an ethos. Even when two (or more) cultures do not prove compatible in the long run, they may produce remarkable short-run gains from trade. Alternatively, it may be said that cultural booms contain the seeds of their own destruction. The Minerva model applies best when gains from trade are based on a cultural imbalance. For instance, American Indian arts and crafts flourished until shortly before their (temporary) collapse early in the twentieth century. The most accomplished arts of the Plains Indians used crayons, pencils, clothes, metals, bright paint pigments, papers, dyed-wool yarns, mirrors, bells, brass tacks, and glass beads, all drawn from European culture. The woodsplintbasketry technique of many Indian tribes appears to have been European in origin, probably Swedish. The kachina dolls of the Hopi flowered in the nineDOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? In this scenario, a burst of creative flowering precedes the decline of a culture and an ethos. Even when two (or more) cultures do not prove compatible in the long run, they may produce remarkable shortrun gains from trade. Alternatively, it may be said that cultural booms contain the seeds of their own destruction
DOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? teenth century, when the Hopi tribe came into con- East Indian culture exhibits a recurring historical tact with Spanish and Mexican folk art and sought pattern of being swamped by some outside culture to meet touristic demands for dolls. Indian totem digesting that culture after a period of adjustment poles became common in the middle of the nine- and returning with synthetic innovations of a very ceenth century, only when the northwestern fur trade high quality. The arya brought new wealth to Indian communities. The set and the gods of the Vedas. The Hellenic influence tlers also brought the metal knife a prerequisite for came to India at the time of alexander, heavily effective large-scale carving influencing Gandharan sculpture. Later India had To some extent trade“ cashes in” the potential extensive seaborne trade with the Roman Empire. creativity embedded in a culture. By accepting the The Islamic influence transformed Indian arts and eventual decline of the culture, we also are mobilia architecture from the thirteenth century onwards ing its creative forces to unprecedented levels, at The Persian influence was especially important in the least for a while earlier years of the Mughal empire, stretching from the sixteenth century to the rule of Queen Victoria The modern world may be cashing in cultures (1526-1857). The first two hundred years of this too quickly, or too many at once, but we should period often are considered the peak of Indian cul not measur re failure by the number of declining ture. The Taj Mahal at Agra comes from Persian cultures. The absence of observed cultural decline sources and influence. The persian influence was might reflect a world that attained dominant in the decorative less diversity in the first place and The absence of observed arts as well, but again India reached lower and fewer peaks. In imilar fashion, a large number of cultural decline might reflect responded by absorbing and declining artistic genres might b a world that attained less The British and Western a symptom of cultural wealth and influence in India has been vitality, rather than a harbinger diversity in the first place 1o exception to this pattern of complete and absolute decay. Cultures are always changing. The and reached lower and fewer India is now a world leader in cinema, the novel, and popu- question is not what declines, but peaks. In similar fashion, a lar music, all genres that owe rather what arises to take its place. considerable debts to Western Almost all of today's disappear large number of declining contact ing cultures evolved out of earlier artistic genres might be a Mexico offers a remark- processes of remixing and cashing symptom of cultural wealth variety of cuisines. arts in of cultures. The spread of the and crafts. and musics. This Chinese across southeast Asia. the and vitality, rather than a diversity has proven resilient extension of the Roman empire,or to foreign influences and the European folk migrations in the harbinger of complete and deed has been culturally Dark ages, whatever their benefits all wrought great havoc on the cul- absolute decay. Cultures are Mexican regional diversip da synthetic from the beginni tures of their time. In reality today's so- called“ indigenous” cultures are always changing. The ques- owes much of its existence regroupings, yesterday's remixed tion is not what declines, but economic growth of Mexico, versions of pr envious cultural expan- which funded an explosion of sions. Cross-cultural contact cashes rather what arises to take its culture, starting in the early some cultures while others ger minate, waiting for subsequent place part of the twentieth century ven in the folk arts. the cultural exchanges to bring out number of artisans in mexico their virtues, while simultaneously heralding later is now at an all-time high. many of the best of these artists take special care to cultivate sales to tourists Trade will bring very small communities into the and wealthy North Americans global economy, but it will not wipe out diversity. India, Mexico, and Brazil provide models of how NICHE ETHOS large societies can maintain distinct and diverse identities in light of extensive foreign contact. Globalization tends to encourage large, internally than destroying it. We have fewer distinct lan. inally, the Minerva scenario changes ethos rathe diverse polities, rather than small unique ones. guages and religions than in times past, but we have a greater number of diverse niche ethoses PHIKAPPA PHI FORUMNoL 83. No, 4
18 Fall 2003 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/Vol. 83, No. 4 19 teenth century, when the Hopi tribe came into contact with Spanish and Mexican folk art and sought to meet touristic demands for dolls. Indian totem poles became common in the middle of the nineteenth century, only when the northwestern fur trade brought new wealth to Indian communities. The settlers also brought the metal knife, a prerequisite for effective large-scale carving. To some extent trade “cashes in” the potential creativity embedded in a culture. By accepting the eventual decline of the culture, we also are mobilizing its creative forces to unprecedented levels, at least for a while. The modern world may be cashing in cultures too quickly, or too many at once, but we should not measure failure by the number of declining cultures. The absence of observed cultural decline might reflect a world that attained less diversity in the first place and reached lower and fewer peaks. In similar fashion, a large number of declining artistic genres might be a symptom of cultural wealth and vitality, rather than a harbinger of complete and absolute decay. Cultures are always changing. The question is not what declines, but rather what arises to take its place. Almost all of today’s disappearing cultures evolved out of earlier processes of remixing and cashing in of cultures. The spread of the Chinese across southeast Asia, the extension of the Roman empire, or the European folk migrations in the Dark Ages, whatever their benefits, all wrought great havoc on the cultures of their time. In reality today’s so-called “indigenous” cultures are regroupings, yesterday’s remixed versions of previous cultural expansions. Cross-cultural contact cashes in some cultures while others germinate, waiting for subsequent cultural exchanges to bring out their virtues, while simultaneously heralding later declines. Trade will bring very small communities into the global economy, but it will not wipe out diversity. India, Mexico, and Brazil provide models of how large societies can maintain distinct and diverse identities in light of extensive foreign contact. Globalization tends to encourage large, internally diverse polities, rather than small unique ones. East Indian culture exhibits a recurring historical pattern of being swamped by some outside culture, digesting that culture after a period of adjustment, and returning with synthetic innovations of a very high quality. The Aryan invaders brought Sanskrit and the gods of the Vedas. The Hellenic influence came to India at the time of Alexander, heavily influencing Gandharan sculpture. Later India had extensive seaborne trade with the Roman Empire. The Islamic influence transformed Indian arts and architecture from the thirteenth century onwards. The Persian influence was especially important in the earlier years of the Mughal empire, stretching from the sixteenth century to the rule of Queen Victoria (1526–1857). The first two hundred years of this period often are considered the peak of Indian culture. The Taj Mahal at Agra comes from Persian sources and influence. The Persian influence was dominant in the decorative arts as well, but again India responded by absorbing and transforming foreign ideas. The British and Western influence in India has been no exception to this pattern. India is now a world leader in cinema, the novel, and popular music, all genres that owe considerable debts to Western contact. Mexico offers a remarkable variety of cuisines, arts and crafts, and musics. This diversity has proven resilient to foreign influences and indeed has been culturally synthetic from the beginning. Mexican regional diversity owes much of its existence to the railroad and to the economic growth of Mexico, which funded an explosion of culture, starting in the early part of the twentieth century. Even in the folk arts, the number of artisans in Mexico is now at an all-time high. Many of the best of these artists take special care to cultivate sales to tourists and wealthy North Americans. NICHE ETHOS Finally, the Minerva scenario changes ethos rather than destroying it. We have fewer distinct languages and religions than in times past, but we have a greater number of diverse niche ethoses. DOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? The absence of observed cultural decline might reflect a world that attained less diversity in the first place and reached lower and fewer peaks. In similar fashion, a large number of declining artistic genres might be a symptom of cultural wealth and vitality, rather than a harbinger of complete and absolute decay. Cultures are always changing. The question is not what declines, but rather what arises to take its place
DOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? Modernity has brought us the"programmer information from common outside sources. whether culture"of Silicon Valley, teenage rave culture of it be newspapers, television, or the Internet. Or the late 1980s and 1990s, and literally millions of these individuals have been brought into a common fandoms, to give a few examples. The science-fio pool with well-developed means of communica- tion revolution of the mid-twentieth century would tion, they sort themselves into more finely grained ot have been possible without national and inte and more diverse groups. Entrepreneurs create national networks for publishing and distribution new groups by marketing, and new groups evol Few science-fiction books and periodicals could have by mobility and sorting. Many kinds of internal supported themselves by selling to purely local audi diversification occur only when a society becomes ences. This niche ethos has in turn spawned creative larger and in some regards more homogeneous chievement in literature, cinema, and computer Counterintuitively, modern diversity is homogenizing trends to some degree The resulting cultural communities are typically In sum, the world's cultures are changing, and independent of geography, as their ethoses are trans- they are changing fast. But we live in an era of cul mitted through means other than spatial proximity. tural plenty and quality The benefits of trade are not We can speak of the liberation of ethos from geog- only limited to greater material wealth, but they also raphy, rather than the destruction of ethos. Most ring us greater creative joy recently, the Internet has liberated culture from geog- raphy to an unprecedented degree. The more that national and international commu- Tyler Cowen is the author of Creative Destruction: nications replace geographic and regionally defined How globalization is Changing the World's Cultures culture, the greater the impetus for the proliferation (Princeton University Press, 2002), and he writes for of new(albeit narrower)ethoses Homogenization marginalrevolution. com and volokh. com, two blogs implies a pool of customers who receive common FISH THROUGH NETS for Cheryl I'd know your lambs-wool slippers anywhere slope of worn right heel the sole's sheen rubbed by footsteps Your fingertips, smudged with watercolor, brush my wrist's blue veins Once, in a cinder-block house with a privy, those same fingers placed a single pansy in a blue bottle d ringed stones on window sills showed me something that slipped past words like fish through nets darting silve that drew me like lodestone down stretches of highway deep in evergreen shadow. through splotches of moon-washed asphalt where you lean close as my fingers furrow your dark hair, threaded with meteors PAT MCCUTCHEON Pat McCutcheon makes her home with her partner in far northern California. At the local community college, she teaches composition, lit- erature, and creative writing. Her chapbook, Recovering Perfectionist, was published in 1996, and her poems have recently appeared in Confluence, Cumberland Poetry Review, Evansville Review, Nightsun, Owen Wister Review, Pearl, Sanscrit, and The MacGuffin
20 Fall 2003 PHI KAPPA PHI FORUM/Vol. 83, No. 4 21 Modernity has brought us the “programmer culture” of Silicon Valley, teenage rave culture of the late 1980s and 1990s, and literally millions of fandoms, to give a few examples. The science-fiction revolution of the mid-twentieth century would not have been possible without national and international networks for publishing and distribution. Few science-fiction books and periodicals could have supported themselves by selling to purely local audiences. This niche ethos has in turn spawned creative achievement in literature, cinema, and computer games. The resulting cultural communities are typically independent of geography, as their ethoses are transmitted through means other than spatial proximity. We can speak of the liberation of ethos from geography, rather than the destruction of ethos. Most recently, the Internet has liberated culture from geography to an unprecedented degree. The more that national and international communications replace geographic and regionally defined culture, the greater the impetus for the proliferation of new (albeit narrower) ethoses. Homogenization implies a pool of customers who receive common DOES GLOBALIZATION KILL ETHOS AND DIVERSITY? information from common outside sources, whether it be newspapers, television, or the Internet. Once these individuals have been brought into a common pool with well-developed means of communication, they sort themselves into more finely grained and more diverse groups. Entrepreneurs create new groups by marketing, and new groups evolve by mobility and sorting. Many kinds of internal diversification occur only when a society becomes larger and in some regards more homogeneous. Counterintuitively, modern diversity is homogenizing trends to some degree. In sum, the world’s cultures are changing, and they are changing fast. But we live in an era of cultural plenty and quality. The benefits of trade are not only limited to greater material wealth, but they also bring us greater creative joy. Tyler Cowen is the author of Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’s Cultures (Princeton University Press, 2002), and he writes for marginalrevolution.com and volokh.com, two blogs. FISH THROUGH NETS for Cheryl I’d know your lambs-wool slippers anywhere: slope of worn right heel, the sole’s sheen rubbed by footsteps. Your fingertips, smudged with watercolor, brush my wrist’s blue veins. Once, in a cinder-block house with a privy, those same fingers placed a single pansy in a blue bottle, arranged ringed stones on window sills, showed me something that slipped past words like fish through nets, darting silver, that drew me like lodestone down stretches of highway deep in evergreen shadow, through splotches of moon-washed asphalt where you lean close as my fingers furrow your dark hair, threaded with meteors. PAT McCUTCHEON Pat McCutcheon makes her home with her partner in far northern California. At the local community college, she teaches composition, literature, and creative writing. Her chapbook, Recovering Perfectionist, was published in 1996, and her poems have recently appeared in Confluence, Cumberland Poetry Review, Evansville Review, Nightsun, Owen Wister Review, Pearl, Sanscrit, and The MacGuffin
