Translation( Translate each of the following passage into Chinese 翻译 (将下列每段英文翻译成中文) Chapter 1 Summary 蔡信杰03391004陈彬03391005 1, Public finance also known as public sector economics or public economics, focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence on the allocation of resources and distribution of income 财政学,即公共经济学,焦点是税收和政府支出以及它们在分配资源和分配收入上的影响。 2, Public finance economists analyze both actual policies and develop guidelines for governmen t activities. In the latter role, economists are influenced by their attitudes toward the role of government in society 财政学同时为政府行为分析现有方针和发展知道思路。在未来作用中,经济受到在社会中有利于政府 的关注者的影响。 3, In all organic view of society, individuals are valued only by their contribution to the realization of social goals. These goals are determined by the government. 在一种有机的社会观中,个别价值只是由它们对实现政府目标所做出贡献来评价的。而这些目标是由 政府来决定的。 4, In a mechanistic view of society, government is a contrivance erected to further individual goals. If is not clear how the government can reconcile sometimes conflicting individual goals. 在一种机械的社会观中,政府是一个为个别长远目标而树立的设备。而政府是如何调节有时可能有矛 盾的个别目标尚不明确 5, Individual decision making is the focus of much economies and is consistent with the mechanistic view of society adopted in this book. This does not eliminate much controversy over the appropriate role of the government in our economic. 独立地作决定是很多经济学方面的重点,也是和本书中所采用的机械的社会观相一致的,这不会除去 很多关于政府应在经济学中适合扮演的角色的争论 6, The Constitution embodies constraints on federal and state government economic activity. 宪法体现了联盟政府和国家在经济活动中的强制性 7, The federal government may effectively undertake any expenditures it whishes and may use debt and taxes to finance them. The federal government may not discriminate among states when choosing tax rates and may not place a levy on state exports. The 16 Amendment empowers the federal government to tax personal incomes. 联盟政府可以有效地担任所有它希望的和可以用债和税来扣供的费用。联盟政府在当选择税率时不 会对州之间产生歧视,而且不会对州征收出口税。第16次修正法案授权联盟政府对个人收入征税 8, State government are forbidden to levy tariffs on imports discriminate against outsides residents, or tax other states'products Most states have balanced budget requirement. 国家是被禁止对进口征收关税,禁止歧视外国居民且禁止对他国产品征税。很多州已经平衡了预算需 9, All common measures of the size of government-employees, expenditures, revenues, etc.-involve some deficiency. In particular, these items miss the impact of regulatory costs. Nonetheless, there is strong evidence that the impact of the government on the allocation of national resources has increased over time
1 Translation ( Translate each of the following passage into Chinese ) 翻译 （将下列每段英文翻译成中文） Chapter 1 Summary 蔡信杰 03391004 陈 彬 03391005 1，Public finance ,also known as public sector economics or public economics, focuses on the taxing and spending activities of government and their influence on the allocation of resources and distribution of income. 财政学，即公共经济学，焦点是税收和政府支出以及它们在分配资源和分配收入上的影响。 2，Public finance economists analyze both actual policies and develop guidelines for government activities . In the latter role, economists are influenced by their attitudes toward the role of government in society. 财政学同时为政府行为分析现有方针和发展知道思路。在未来作用中，经济受到在社会中有利于政府 的关注者的影响。 3，In all organic view of society , individuals are valued only by their contribution to the realization of social goals. These goals are determined by the government. 在一种有机的社会观中，个别价值只是由它们对实现政府目标所做出贡献来评价的。而这些目标是由 政府来决定的。 4，In a mechanistic view of society ,government is a contrivance erected to further individual goals.If is not clear how the government can reconcile sometimes conflicting individual goals. 在一种机械的社会观中，政府是一个为个别长远目标而树立的设备。而政府是如何调节有时可能有矛 盾的个别目标尚不明确。 5， Individual decision making is the focus of much economics and is consistent with the mechanistic view of society adopted in this book .This does not eliminate much controversy over the appropriate role of the government in our economic. 独立地作决定是很多经济学方面的重点，也是和本书中所采用的机械的社会观相一致的，这不会除去 很多关于政府应在经济学中适合扮演的角色的争论。 6，The Constitution embodies constraints on federal and state government economic activity. 宪法体现了联盟政府和国家在经济活动中的强制性。 7，The federal government may effectively undertake any expenditures it whishes and may use debt and taxes to finance them .The federal government may not discriminate among states when choosing tax rates and may not place a levy on state exports .The 16th Amendment empowers the federal government to tax personal incomes. 联盟政府可以有效地担任所有它希望的和可以用债和税来扣供的费用。联盟政府在当选择税率时不 会对州之间产生歧视，而且不会对州征收出口税。第 16 次修正法案授权联盟政府对个人收入征税。 8，State government are forbidden to levy tariffs on imports ,discriminate against outsides residents, or tax other states’ products. Most states have balanced budget requirement. 国家是被禁止对进口征收关税，禁止歧视外国居民且禁止对他国产品征税。很多州已经平衡了预算需 求。 9，All common measures of the size of government-employees, expenditures, revenues, etc.-involve some deficiency. In particular, these items miss the impact of regulatory costs. Nonetheless , there is strong evidence that the impact of the government on the allocation of national resources has increased over time
所有对政府尺寸的普通测量方式一一雇员、费用、财源一一总包括了一些不足之处。在特定的情况下 这些项目忽视了规章费用所带来的影响。虽然如此,仍有很强的证据证明政府在国家策略上的布置的 影响已经增长超过时限。 10, The level of government expenditures has increased in both nominal and real absolute terms, in per capita terms, and as a percentage of gross domestic product 政府开支的水平已经在各政府预算时期,名义上和绝对数上都有了增长,如同国内产成品总体的百分 11, The share of defense spending in federal expenditure has fallen over time while Social Security ,public welfare, and payment on outstanding debt have increased in importance. The combination of entitlement programs and interest payments reduces yearly control over the level of expenditures. 着社会保障公共福利和巨大的债务偿还的比重的增加,国防支出占联邦总支出的比重在减少,政府 津贴计划和利息偿还总和逐年减少,使得总支出水平下降 12, Personal income and Social Security payroll taxes are currently the largest sources of government revenue.个人收入和社会安全工资税通常是政府最大的财税来源 CHAPTER2 Summary 陈瑜星03391009郭思03391017 1, Because economists generally cannot perform controlled experiments with the economy, the effects of economic policy are difficult to determine. 由于经济学家一般不能对经济进行可控实验,因而经济政策的影响难于确定。 2, Economic theory helps specify the factors that might affect a given kind of behavior. However, theory alone cannot say how important any particular factor is 经济理论有助于确定哪些因素可能影响某种行为,不过单凭理论不能说明任何具体因素的重要性 3, Empirical research attempts to measure both the directions and size of the effect of government policy changes on behavior Common types of empirical studies are interview studies, social and laboratory experiments, and econometric analysis. 经济研究试图测定政府政策变化对行为影响的方向和大小。经验研究一般类型有面谈,社会实验,实 验室实验和经济计量研究。 4, Interviews studies consist of directly asking people how various policies affect their behavior. However, people may not actually react to policies in the way they say they do 面谈研究是直接询问人们,各种政策如何影响他们的行为。然而,人们实际上可能不按其嘴上所说的 方式对政策作出反应。 5, Social experiments subject one group of people to some policy and compare their behavior with that of a control group. Problems can arise because: the experiment itself may affect people's behavior; it's difficult to obtain a random sample and social experiments are quite costly. 社会实验将一组人置于某种政策的影响下,将他们的行为与另外一组人的行为相比较。但问题也会同 时产生,因为这种实验本身就可能影响人们的行为,而且难于取得随机样本,同时社会实验的成本很 6, Laboratory experiments are used to study some types of economic decision 实验室实验用来研究某些经济决策 7, Econometrics is the statistical analysis of economic data In econometrics, the effects of various policies are inferred from observed behavior. 计量经济学是对经济数据的统计分析。在计量经济学中,各种政策的影响是根据观察到的行为推断出 2
2 所有对政府尺寸的普通测量方式――雇员、费用、财源――总包括了一些不足之处。在特定的情况下， 这些项目忽视了规章费用所带来的影响。虽然如此，仍有很强的证据证明政府在国家策略上的布置的 影响已经增长超过时限。 10，The level of government expenditures has increased in both nominal and real absolute terms, in per capita terms, and as a percentage of gross domestic product. 政府开支的水平已经在各政府预算时期，名义上和绝对数上都有了增长，如同国内产成品总体的百分 比一样。 11， The share of defense spending in federal expenditure has fallen over time ,while Social Security ,public welfare, and payment on outstanding debt have increased in importance . The combination of entitlement programs and interest payments reduces yearly control over the level of expenditures. 随着社会保障公共福利和巨大的债务偿还的比重的增加，国防支出占联邦总支出的比重在减少，政府 津贴计划和利息偿还总和逐年减少，使得总支出水平下降。 12，Personal income and Social Security payroll taxes are currently the largest sources of government revenue. 个人收入和社会安全工资税通常是政府最大的财税来源。 CHAPTER 2 Summary: 陈瑜星 03391009 郭思 03391017 1, Because economists generally cannot perform controlled experiments with the economy, the effects of economic policy are difficult to determine. 由于经济学家一般不能对经济进行可控实验，因而经济政策的影响难于确定。 2，Economic theory helps specify the factors that might affect a given kind of behavior. However, theory alone cannot say how important any particular factor is. 经济理论有助于确定哪些因素可能影响某种行为，不过单凭理论不能说明任何具体因素的重要性。 3，Empirical research attempts to measure both the directions and size of the effect of government policy changes on behavior. Common types of empirical studies are interview studies, social and laboratory experiments , and econometric analysis. 经济研究试图测定政府政策变化对行为影响的方向和大小。经验研究一般类型有面谈，社会实验，实 验室实验和经济计量研究。 4，Interviews studies consist of directly asking people how various policies affect their behavior. However, people may not actually react to policies in the way they say they do. 面谈研究是直接询问人们，各种政策如何影响他们的行为。然而，人们实际上可能不按其嘴上所说的 方式对政策作出反应。 5，Social experiments subject one group of people to some policy and compare their behavior with that of a control group. Problems can arise because: the experiment itself may affect people’s behavior; it’s difficult to obtain a random sample ; and social experiments are quite costly. 社会实验将一组人置于某种政策的影响下，将他们的行为与另外一组人的行为相比较。但问题也会同 时产生，因为这种实验本身就可能影响人们的行为，而且难于取得随机样本，同时社会实验的成本很 高。 6, Laboratory experiments are used to study some types of economic decisions . 实验室实验用来研究某些经济决策。 7, Econometrics is the statistical analysis of economic data .In econometrics, the effects of various policies are inferred from observed behavior. 计量经济学是对经济数据的统计分析。在计量经济学中，各种政策的影响是根据观察到的行为推断出
来的。 8, Multiple regression analysis is used to pick the best"parameters for an econometric model. Knowing the parameters allows one to predict the effects of policy changes. 多元回归分析用来为经济计量模型挑选“最佳的”参数。知道这些参数后,我们就可以预测政策变化 的影响 9, Econometrics has some pitfalls. Misleading results occur if data from greatly dissimilar groups are combined; if important variables are omitted; if the wrong mathematical form is adopted; if variables are incorrectly measured; or if there is simultaneous causation between variables. 计量经济学存在一些缺陷。如果把差异很大的群体的数据合并在一起,如果遗漏了重要变量,如果采 用了错误的数学形式,如果不正确地测度了变量,如果变量之间存在因果关系,那么,就会得出错误 的结果。 Chapter 3 Tools of Normative Analysis 何玉琼03391020胡毅03391022 1, Welfare economics is the study of the desirability of alternative economic states. 福利经济学研究不同经济状态的合意性。 2, A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better off without making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that each persons marginal rate of substitution between two commodities equal the marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economists benchmark of efficient performance for an economy 如果不使他人的境况变坏就不能使一个人的境况变好,这就实现了帕累托效率配置。帕累托效率要求 每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标 准 3, The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that, under certain conditions. competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficient outcomes. 福利经济学的第一基本定理指出,在某些条件下,竞争市场机制会产生帕雷托效率结果。 Despite its appeal, Pareto efficiency has no obvious claim as an ethical norm. Society may prefer an inefficient allocation on the basis of equity or some other criterion. This provides one possible reason for government intervention in the economy 尽管帕雷托效率颇有吸引力,但并没有明确的理由可以作为伦理标准。基于公平或其他某种标准,社 会也许倾向于无效率的配置。这就为政府干预经济提供了一种可能的理由 5, A social welfare function summarizes society's preferences concerning the utility of each of its members. It may be used to find the allocation of resources that maximizes social welfare 社会福利函数概括的是对每一社会成员效用的社会偏好,用来寻找使社会福利最大化的资源配置 6, The Second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that society can attain any Pareto-efficient allocation of resources by making a suitable assignment of initial endowments and then letting people freely trade with each other. 福利经济学的第二基本定理指出,社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋,然后让人们彼此自由地交易, 就可以实现帕雷托效率资源配置 7, A second reason for government intervention is market failure, which may occur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exis 政府干预的第二个理由是市场失灵。如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在,就会出现市场失灵
3 来的。 8，Multiple regression analysis is used to pick the “best” parameters for an econometric model. Knowing the parameters allows one to predict the effects of policy changes. 多元回归分析用来为经济计量模型挑选“最佳的”参数。知道这些参数后，我们就可以预测政策变化 的影响。 9，Econometrics has some pitfalls. Misleading results occur if data from greatly dissimilar groups are combined; if important variables are omitted; if the wrong mathematical form is adopted; if variables are incorrectly measured; or if there is simultaneous causation between variables. 计量经济学存在一些缺陷。如果把差异很大的群体的数据合并在一起，如果遗漏了重要变量，如果采 用了错误的数学形式，如果不正确地测度了变量，如果变量之间存在因果关系，那么，就会得出错误 的结果。 Chapter 3 Tools of Normative Analysis 何玉琼 03391020 胡 毅 03391022 Summary 1，Welfare economics is the study of the desirability of alternative economic states. 福利经济学研究不同经济状态的合意性。 2，A Pareto efficient allocation occurs when no person can be made better off without making another person worse off. Pareto efficiency requires that each person’s marginal rate of substitution between two commodities equal the marginal rate of transformation. Pareto efficiency is the economist’s benchmark of efficient performance for an economy. 如果不使他人的境况变坏就不能使一个人的境况变好，这就实现了帕累托效率配置。帕累托效率要求， 每个人对两种商品的边际替代率等于边际转换率。帕累托效率是经济学家判断经济是否有效运行的标 准。 3，The First Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that, under certain conditions, competitive market mechanisms lead to Pareto efficient outcomes. 福利经济学的第一基本定理指出，在某些条件下，竞争市场机制会产生帕雷托效率结果。 4，Despite its appeal, Pareto efficiency has no obvious claim as an ethical norm. Society may prefer an inefficient allocation on the basis of equity or some other criterion. This provides one possible reason for government intervention in the economy. 尽管帕雷托效率颇有吸引力，但并没有明确的理由可以作为伦理标准。基于公平或其他某种标准，社 会也许倾向于无效率的配置。这就为政府干预经济提供了一种可能的理由。 5，A social welfare function summarizes society’s preferences concerning the utility of each of its members. It may be used to find the allocation of resources that maximizes social welfare. 社会福利函数概括的是对每一社会成员效用的社会偏好，用来寻找使社会福利最大化的资源配置。 6，The Second Fundamental Theorem of Welfare Economics states that society can attain any Pareto-efficient allocation of resources by making a suitable assignment of initial endowments and then letting people freely trade with each other. 福利经济学的第二基本定理指出，社会通过适当地安排初始资源禀赋，然后让人们彼此自由地交易， 就可以实现帕雷托效率资源配置。 7，A second reason for government intervention is market failure, which may occur in the presence of market power or when markets do not exist. 政府干预的第二个理由是市场失灵。如果存在市场影响力或者市场不存在，就会出现市场失灵
8, The fact that the market does not allocate resources perfectly does not necessarily mean the government can do better. Each case must be evaluated on its own merits. 市场不能完全配置资源,不一定就意味着政府能做得更好、具体情况要具体分析 9, Welfare economics is based on an individualistic social philosophy. It does not pay much attention to the processes used to achieve results. Thus, although it provides a coherent and useful framework for analyzing policy, welfare economics is not universally accepted 福利经济学的基础是个人主义的社会哲学,对取得结果的过程并不太在意。因此,尽管福利经济学为 政策分析提供了一个系统而有用的框架,但还是有些争议 Chapter4 Public Goods Summary摘要391035李鑫03391030鞠艳双 1, Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonexcludability in consumption. 公共产品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。 2, Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but not necessarily the preferred amount, of the public good.因此,每个人都消费同样数量的公共产品,但并不一定是其所偏好的数量 3, Efficient provision of public goods requires that the sum of the individual MRSS equal the MRT, unlike private goods where each MRS equals the mrt 公共产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率之和等于边际转换率,而不像私人产品, 私人产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率等于边际转换率 4, Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonrival goods efficiently, even if they are excludable 市场机制不可能有效地提供在消费上具有非竞争性的产品,即使它们在消费上具有非排他性 5, Casual observation and laboratory studies indicate that people do not fully exploit free riding possibilities.随机观察和实验室研究显示,人们并没有充分地利用免费搭便车的机会 6, Nonetheless, in certain cases, free riding is a significant problem 然而,在某些特定的情况下,免费搭车行为会是一个很严重的问题。 7, Public goods can be provided privately, and private goods can be provided publicly 公共产品可以由私人提供,私人产品也可以由公共提供 8, Even in cases where public provision of a good is selected, a choice between public and private production must be made. 即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下,还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间做出选择。 9, A key factor in determining whether public or private production will be more efficient is the market environment.决定是由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率的关键因素是市场环境 10, Another important question is the extent to which complete contracts can be written with private sector service providers. 另一个重要的问题是,与私人部门服务的提供者签订合同的完备程度 11, Although education is generally publicly provided, it is not clear that education is a public good 尽管教育通常是由公共提供的,但是,教育是否是公共产品尚不清楚 12, Moreover, statistical research suggests that the link between spending and educational outcomes is tenuous.而且,统计研究表明,支出和教育结果之间的关系是相当含糊的 13, Although general increases in educational expenditure to reduce classroom size seem unlikely to
4 8，The fact that the market does not allocate resources perfectly does not necessarily mean the government can do better. Each case must be evaluated on its own merits. 市场不能完全配置资源，不一定就意味着政府能做得更好、具体情况要具体分析。 9，Welfare economics is based on an individualistic social philosophy. It does not pay much attention to the processes used to achieve results. Thus, although it provides a coherent and useful framework for analyzing policy, welfare economics is not universally accepted. 福利经济学的基础是个人主义的社会哲学，对取得结果的过程并不太在意。因此，尽管福利经济学为 政策分析提供了一个系统而有用的框架，但还是有些争议。 Chapter 4 Public Goods Summary 摘要 03391035 李 鑫 03391030 鞠艳双 1，Public goods are characterized by nonrivalness and nonexcludability in consumption. 公共产品的特征是消费的非竞争性和非排他性。 2，Thus, each person consumes the same amount, but not necessarily the preferred amount, of the public good. 因此，每个人都消费同样数量的公共产品，但并不一定是其所偏好的数量。 3，Efficient provision of public goods requires that the sum of the individual MRSs equal the MRT, unlike private goods where each MRS equals the MRT. 公共产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率之和等于边际转换率，而不像私人产品， 私人产品的有效提供要求个人的边际替代率等于边际转换率。 4，Market mechanisms are unlikely to provide nonrival goods efficiently, even if they are excludable. 市场机制不可能有效地提供在消费上具有非竞争性的产品，即使它们在消费上具有非排他性。 5，Casual observation and laboratory studies indicate that people do not fully exploit free riding possibilities. 随机观察和实验室研究显示，人们并没有充分地利用免费搭便车的机会。 6，Nonetheless, in certain cases, free riding is a significant problem 然而，在某些特定的情况下，免费搭车行为会是一个很严重的问题。 7，Public goods can be provided privately, and private goods can be provided publicly 公共产品可以由私人提供，私人产品也可以由公共提供。 8，Even in cases where public provision of a good is selected, a choice between public and private production must be made. 即使在某种物品由公共提供的情况下，还是要在公共生产和私人生产之间做出选择。 9，Akey factor in determining whether public or private production will be more efficient is the market environment. 决定是由公共生产还是私人生产更有效率的关键因素是市场环境。 10，Another important question is the extent to which complete contracts can be written With private sector service providers. 另一个重要的问题是，与私人部门服务的提供者签订合同的完备程度。 11，Although education is generally publicly provided, it is not clear that education is a public good. 尽管教育通常是由公共提供的，但是，教育是否是公共产品尚不清楚。 12，Moreover, statistical research suggests that the link between spending and educational outcomes is tenuous. 而且，统计研究表明，支出和教育结果之间的关系是相当含糊的。 13，Although general increases in educational expenditure to reduce classroom size seem unlikely to
enhance educational performance, some targeted spending programs seem to be quite effective. 尽管为了缩小班级规模而使教育支出普遍増加看起来似乎并没有増加教育业绩,但是某些目标已经确 定的支出项目似乎还是很有成效的 14, In particular, well-designed early interventions appear to raise both future test scores and earnings. 特别是,那些经过精心设计的早期教育看来很可能提高了将来的考试成绩和收入。 15, Some economists are convinced that public schools would improve if they were subjected to 仿eimn-些经济学家相信,如果公立学校有竞争,那么他们会得到改进。 One proposal in that direction is a voucher system, under which financial support for education goes to the family of the student, not directly to the school 按照这种思路提出的一种建议是实行凭单制,也就是把教育的财政资助给予学生家庭,而不是直接拨 款给学校 17, The voucher could be redeemed at whatever qualified school was preferred by the Family 这种凭单足以支付家庭所选择的任何合格的学校的学费。 Chapter5 Summary0391040留丹鹤0391036林嘉俊 1, An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another person outside the market mechanism. Externalities may generally be traced to the absence of enforceable property rights. 当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时,就产生了外部性。一般来说,外部性之所以存在, 是因为缺乏可行的产权。 2, Externalities cause market price to diverge from social cost, bringing about an inefficient allocation of resource. 外部性造成市场价格偏离社会成本,引起无效率的资源配置 3, The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward the efficient output if property rights are established. However, bargaining costs must be low and the source of the externality easily identified. 科斯定理表明,如果产权确立了,私人通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量,但是,讨价还价成本必须很 低,并且外部性原因也容易确认。 4,A Pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginal social damage at the efficient level. Such a tax gives the producer a private incentive to pollute the efficient amount. 庇古税为对污染课税的税收,税额等于效率产量水平时的边际社会损害,这种税使生产者产生私人动 机,使污染量不超过有效数量 5, A subsidy for pollution not produced can induce producers to pollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too much production, are administratively difficult, and are regarded by some as ethically unappealing. 对不产生污染的生产进行补贴,会使生产者污染不超过效率水平,但补贴可导致生产过多,在管理上 很困难,并且有人认为它不符合道德规范 6, Pollution rights may be traded in markets, This fixes the total level of pollution, an advantage when administrators are uncertain how polluters will respond to Pigouvian taxes. 污染权可以在市场上进行交易,这可以固定污染的总水平,在管理者不能确定污染者对庇古税会如何 反应时,它具有优势。 7, Regulation is likely to be inefficient because the social value of pollution reduction varies across firms, locations, and the populace. Nevertheless, this is the most widespread form of environmental
5 enhance educational performance, some targeted spending programs seem to be quite effective. 尽管为了缩小班级规模而使教育支出普遍增加看起来似乎并没有增加教育业绩，但是某些目标已经确 定的支出项目似乎还是很有成效的。 14，In particular, well-designed early interventions appear to raise both future test scores and earnings. 特别是，那些经过精心设计的早期教育看来很可能提高了将来的考试成绩和收入。 15，Some economists are convinced that public schools would improve if they were subjected to competition. 一些经济学家相信，如果公立学校有竞争，那么他们会得到改进。 16，One proposal in that direction is a voucher system, under which financial support for education goes to the family of the student, not directly to the school. 按照这种思路提出的一种建议是实行凭单制，也就是把教育的财政资助给予学生家庭，而不是直接拨 款给学校。 17，The voucher could be redeemed at whatever qualified school was preferred by the Family 这种凭单足以支付家庭所选择的任何合格的学校的学费。 Chapter 5 Summary 03391040 留丹鹤 03391036 林嘉俊 1，An externality occurs when the activity of one person affects another person outside the market mechanism. Externalities may generally be traced to the absence of enforceable property rights. 当一个人的活动在市场机制之外影响另一个人时，就产生了外部性。一般来说，外部性之所以存在， 是因为缺乏可行的产权。 2，Externalities cause market price to diverge from social cost, bringing about an inefficient allocation of resource. 外部性造成市场价格偏离社会成本，引起无效率的资源配置。 3，The Coase Theorem indicates that private parties may bargain toward the efficient output if property rights are established. However, bargaining costs must be low and the source of the externality easily identified. 科斯定理表明，如果产权确立了，私人通过讨价还价可以达到效率产量，但是，讨价还价成本必须很 低，并且外部性原因也容易确认。 4，A Pigouvian tax is a tax levied on pollution in an amount equal to the marginal social damage at the efficient level . Such a tax gives the producer a private incentive to pollute the efficient amount. 庇古税为对污染课税的税收，税额等于效率产量水平时的边际社会损害，这种税使生产者产生私人动 机，使污染量不超过有效数量。 5，A subsidy for pollution not produced can induce producers to pollute at the efficient level. However, subsidies can lead to too much production, are administratively difficult,and are regarded by some as ethically unappealing. 对不产生污染的生产进行补贴，会使生产者污染不超过效率水平，但补贴可导致生产过多，在管理上 很困难，并且有人认为它不符合道德规范。 6，Pollution rights may be traded in markets, This fixes the total level of pollution ,an advantage when administrators are uncertain how polluters will respond to Pigouvian taxes. 污染权可以在市场上进行交易，这可以固定污染的总水平，在管理者不能确定污染者对庇古税会如何 反应时，它具有优势。 7，Regulation is likely to be inefficient because the social value of pollution reduction varies across firms, locations, and the populace. Nevertheless, this is the most widespread form of environmental
policy---a source of dismay to economists. a prime example is the US Clean Air Act. 规制很可能无效率的,因为对不同企业,地点和人群,污染减少的社会价值各有不同,但这是环境政 策中应用最广泛的一种形式。也是另经济学家失望的原因,一个主要例子是美国的《污染空气法》 8, Positive externalities generally lead to underprovision of an activity. A subsidy can correct the problem, but care must be taken to avoid wasteful subsidies. 正外部性一般会导致一种活动提供不足,补贴可以解决这个问题,但必须注意避免滥用补贴。 Chapter6 Political Economy Summary马瑞林0391041苏珊珊03391044 Summary l, Political economy applies economic principle to the analysis of political decision making 政治经济学是把经济学原理应用到公共选择的分析的学科。 2, Economists have studied several methods for choosing levels of public foods in a direct democracy. 经济学家们已经研究了在一个直接民主制度下几种关于公共产品选择的标准 3, Lindahl pricing results in a unanimous decision to provide an efficient quantity of public goods, but relies on honest revelation of preferences. 林达定价取决于在提供有效的公共产品的数量的一致决定,但是这依赖于真实偏好的表示。 4, Majority voting may lead to inconsistent decisions regarding public goods if some people's preferences are not single peaked. 如果一些人的偏好不是单峰的,那么关于公共产品地多数人投票将导致不一致的决定。 5, Logrolling allows voters to express the intensity of their preferences by trading votes. However, minority gai ome at of greate 互投赞成票”交易理论认为投票人可以通过选票交易来表现他们的偏好程度。然而,少数人的利益 可能会损失很大 6, Arrow's Impossibility Theorem states that, in general, it is impossible to find a decision- making rule that simultaneously satisfies a number of apparently reasonable criteria. The implication is that democracies are inherently prone to make inconsistent decisions. 阿罗不可能定理表明,一般情况下,不可能找到一个能同时满足许多显然合理的标准的决策规则。这 是因为民主制度天生倾向于产生不一致的决策 7, Explanations of government behavior in a representative democracy require studying the interaction of elected officials, public employees, and special-interest groups. 对于代议制的民主制下的政府行为的解释,需要研究政治家、政府雇员和特殊利益集团间的相互作用。 8, Under restrictive assumptions, the actions of elected officials mimic the wishes of the median voter 在严格的假设条件下,政治家的行为会趋向于迎合中间投票人的利益。 9, Public employees have an important impact on the development and implementation of economic policy.公务员对经济政策的制定和执行有很重要的影响 10, One theory predicts that bureaucrats attempt to maximize the size of their agencies budgets, resulting in oversupply of the service.有一种理论预示:官僚主义者(政府雇员)试图最大化他们的 行政预算,从而导致机构服务的过度提供 ll, Rent-seeking private citizens form groups to influence government activity. 私人寻租者形成集团去影响政府的活动
6 policy---a source of dismay to economists. A prime example is the US Clean Air Act. 规制很可能无效率的，因为对不同企业，地点和人群，污染减少的社会价值各有不同，但这是环境政 策中应用最广泛的一种形式。也是另经济学家失望的原因，一个主要例子是美国的《污染空气法》 8，Positive externalities generally lead to underprovision of an activity . A subsidy can correct the problem, but care must be taken to avoid wasteful subsidies. 正外部性一般会导致一种活动提供不足，补贴可以解决这个问题，但必须注意避免滥用补贴。 Chapter 6 Political Economy Summary 马瑞林 03391041 苏珊珊 03391044 Summary 1, Political economy applies economic principle to the analysis of political decision making . 政治经济学是把经济学原理应用到公共选择的分析的学科。 2, Economists have studied several methods for choosing levels of public foods in a direct democracy. 经济学家们已经研究了在一个直接民主制度下几种关于公共产品选择的标准。 3, Lindahl pricing results in a unanimous decision to provide an efficient quantity of public goods, but relies on honest revelation of preferences. 林达定价取决于在提供有效的公共产品的数量的一致决定，但是这依赖于真实偏好的表示。 4, Majority voting may lead to inconsistent decisions regarding public goods if some people’s preferences are not single peaked. 如果一些人的偏好不是单峰的，那么关于公共产品地多数人投票将导致不一致的决定。 5, Logrolling allows voters to express the intensity of their preferences by trading votes .However, minority gains may come at expense of greater general losses. “互投赞成票”交易理论认为投票人可以通过选票交易来表现他们的偏好程度。然而，少数人的利益 可能会损失很大。 6, Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem states that, in general, it is impossible to find a decision-making rule that simultaneously satisfies a number of apparently reasonable criteria. The implication is that democracies are inherently prone to make inconsistent decisions. 阿罗不可能定理表明，一般情况下，不可能找到一个能同时满足许多显然合理的标准的决策规则。这 是因为民主制度天生倾向于产生不一致的决策。 7, Explanations of government behavior in a representative democracy require studying the interaction of elected officials, public employees, and special-interest groups. 对于代议制的民主制下的政府行为的解释，需要研究政治家、政府雇员和特殊利益集团间的相互作用。 8, Under restrictive assumptions, the actions of elected officials mimic the wishes of the median voter. 在严格的假设条件下，政治家的行为会趋向于迎合中间投票人的利益。 9, Public employees have an important impact on the development and implementation of economic policy. 公务员对经济政策的制定和执行有很重要的影响。 10, One theory predicts that bureaucrats attempt to maximize the size of their agencies’ budgets, resulting in oversupply of the service. 有一种理论预示：官僚主义者（政府雇员）试图最大化他们的 行政预算，从而导致机构服务的过度提供。 11, Rent-seeking private citizens form groups to influence government activity. 私人寻租者形成集团去影响政府的活动
12, Special interests can form on the basis of income source, income size, industry, region, or personal characteristics_特殊利益集团的形成是基于收入来源,收入的规模,行业,地区,还有个人的特征。 13, The growth of government has been rapid by any measure. Explanations of this phenomenon include:无论用何种方法来衡量,政府支出增长速度都过快。以下现象可以解释: 14, Citizens simply want a larger government.公民简单地认为需要一个更大的政府。 15, The public sector must expand to absorb private excess production. 公共部门必须扩展以吸收私人部门的超额产品。 16, Random events(such as wars) increase the growth of government, while inertia prevents a return to previous levels.随机事件(如:战争)加快了政府支出的增长,然而惯性阻碍它回到原来的水平。 17, Unrealistic expectations have resulted in increasing demands that ignore the opportunity costs of public programs.不切实际的期望导致需求的增长,而忽略公共项目的机会成本 18, Certain groups use the government to redistribute income to themselves. 某些集团利用政府把收入从新分配给他们自己 19, Proposals to control the growth in government include encouraging private sector competition, reforming the budget process, and constitutional amendments. 控制政府支出增长的建议包括:鼓励私人部门竞争,改革预算过程和修正宪法 chapter7 Summary 许俊勇03391053 陈云颖03391067吴育云03391052 l, Measuring the extent of poverty is difficult to do. Problems with the governments official poverty figures include: (a)they count only cash receipts; b)they ignore taxes; (c)they are based on annual income measures; (d)they ignore changes in household composition 度量贫穷的外延是很困难的。政府官方的贫穷数据存在如下问题:(1)数据只涉及现金支出(没有包 括实物转移)(2)忽略了税收(即税前收入,默认税率一成不变)(3)数据基于年度收入测量(4) 忽略了不同结构家庭之间的差别(如单亲和双亲) 2, if(I)social welfare is the sum of identical utility functions that depend only on incomes; (2)there is decreasing marginal utility of incomes; and(3)the total amount of income is fixed; then income should be equally distributed. these are strong assumptions and weakening them gives radically different results 假如(1)社会福利只是那些基于收入的无差别效用函数的简单加总(2)收入的边际效用是递减的(3) 总收入是固定的,则收入应该平等地被分配。这3点都是极其严格的假设,条件削弱的话会得出截然 不同的结果 3, the maximin criterion states that the best income distribution maximizes the utility of the person who has the lowest utility. The ethical validity of this proposition is controversial. 最大最小准则表明最好的收入分配能使最小效用的那个人效用最大化。这一命题的伦理合理性有待商 4, the income distribution may be like a public good-everyone derives utility from the fact that income is equitably distributed, but government coercion is needed to accomplish redistribution. Pareto efficient redistribution occurs when on one is made worse off as a result of a transfer 收入的分配可能象一种公共产品一一如果收入是平等分配的话每一个人都将获得效用,但是政府的强 制政策是完成再分配。当没有任何人因为财富重新分配而状况变坏的话,帕累托效率就出现了 5, other views of income distribution reject the utilitarian framework. some believe it is a first principle that income, or at least certain goods, should be distributed equally. others argue that the
7 12, Special interests can form on the basis of income source, income size, industry, region, or personal characteristics. 特殊利益集团的形成是基于收入来源，收入的规模，行业，地区，还有个人的特征。 13, The growth of government has been rapid by any measure. Explanations of this phenomenon include: 无论用何种方法来衡量，政府支出增长速度都过快。以下现象可以解释： 14, Citizens simply want a larger government. 公民简单地认为需要一个更大的政府。 15, The public sector must expand to absorb private excess production. 公共部门必须扩展以吸收私人部门的超额产品。 16, Random events (such as wars) increase the growth of government, while inertia prevents a return to previous levels. 随机事件（如：战争）加快了政府支出的增长，然而惯性阻碍它回到原来的水平。 17, Unrealistic expectations have resulted in increasing demands that ignore the opportunity costs of public programs. 不切实际的期望导致需求的增长，而忽略公共项目的机会成本。 18, Certain groups use the government to redistribute income to themselves. 某些集团利用政府把收入从新分配给他们自己。 19, Proposals to control the growth in government include encouraging private sector competition, reforming the budget process, and constitutional amendments. 控制政府支出增长的建议包括：鼓励私人部门竞争，改革预算过程和修正宪法。 chapter7 Summary 许俊勇 03391053 陈云颖 03391067 吴育云 03391052 1, Measuring the extent of poverty is difficult to do. Problems with the government’s official poverty figures include:(a)they count only cash receipts;(b)they ignore taxes;(c)they are based on annual income measures;(d)they ignore changes in household composition 度量贫穷的外延是很困难的。政府官方的贫穷数据存在如下问题：（1）数据只涉及现金支出（没有包 括实物转移）（2）忽略了税收（即税前收入，默认税率一成不变）（3）数据基于年度收入测量（4） 忽略了不同结构家庭之间的差别（如单亲和双亲） 2, if(1)social welfare is the sum of identical utility functions that depend only on incomes;(2)there is decreasing marginal utility of incomes ; and (3)the total amount of income is fixed; then income should be equally distributed .these are strong assumptions and weakening them gives radically different results. 假如（1）社会福利只是那些基于收入的无差别效用函数的简单加总（2）收入的边际效用是递减的（3） 总收入是固定的，则收入应该平等地被分配。这 3 点都是极其严格的假设，条件削弱的话会得出截然 不同的结果。 3, the maximin criterion states that the best income distribution maximizes the utility of the person who has the lowest utility. The ethical validity of this proposition is controversial. 最大最小准则表明最好的收入分配能使最小效用的那个人效用最大化。这一命题的伦理合理性有待商 议。 4, the income distribution may be like a public good—everyone derives utility from the fact that income is equitably distributed, but government coercion is needed to accomplish redistribution. Pareto efficient redistribution occurs when on one is made worse off as a result of a transfer. 收入的分配可能象一种公共产品——如果收入是平等分配的话每一个人都将获得效用，但是政府的强 制政策是完成再分配。当没有任何人因为财富重新分配而状况变坏的话，帕累托效率就出现了。 5, other views of income distribution reject the utilitarian framework. some believe it is a first principle that income, or at least certain goods, should be distributed equally. others argue that the
distribution of income is irrelevant as long as the distribution arises from a"fair "process. 其他一些观点屏弃了功利主义者的理论框架。一些人认为收入,至少是特定的产品,平等的分配是第 法则。其他的观点则认为,收入分配是无关紧要的,只要它源于一种“公平”的过程 6, a government program can change relative prices, creating losses and gains for various individuals. It is difficult to trace all of these price changes, so economists generally focus only on the prices in the markets directly affected 项政府的政策可以改变相对价格,引起不同的个体的得利或者损失。要追踪所有的价格变化是困难 的,因此,经济学家只关注直接受影响的市场价格 7, because people do not reveal how they value public goods, it is difficult to determine how these goods affect real incomes. 由于人们并不显示他们对公共产品的评价,因此,确定这些产品如何影响真实收入是困难的 8, many government programs provide goods and services (in-kind transfers) instead of cash. Recipients are not legally allowed to sell the goods and services so received. If recipients would prefer to consume less, the value of the in-kind transfer is less than the market price. 许多政府方案提供产品和服务(实物转移)而非现金。获得者在法律上不被允许出售这些获得的产品 和服务。如果获得者偏好少消费一些这些产品,实物转移的价值便会低于其市场价格 9, the prevalence of in-kind transfer programs may be due to paternalism, commodity egalitarianism administrative feasibility, or political attractiveness 实物转移方案的广泛存在可能归于父爱主义,商品平等主义,管理上的可行性,或者政治上的吸引力。 Chapter8李晨曦0391080胡名栋03391071李俭03391082 1, Means-tested programs transfer income to people whose resource fall below a certain level Government means-tested programs are about 4.1 percent of GDP. 以经济情况调查结果为基础的计划,向收入低于某一平均水平的人转移收入。政府的这类计划支出额 约占GDP的4。1% 2, The current program of cash assistance, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families(TANF), was enacted in 1996. It removed the entitlement to cash benefits. In general, recipients cannot receive cash transfers for more than five years, and after two years they must take part in some work-related activity. 1996年开始实行对贫困家庭的临时补助计划,废除了享有现金补助的公民权利性计划。一般来说, 接受者获得现金转移不得超过5年,两年之后他们必须参加与某种工作活动 3, Under TANf, the sates have virtually total control over the structure of their welfare systems. States vary considerably in the rates at which they reduce benefits when recipients earn income. 这次改革的一个重要特点是,各州实际上拥有对福利制度结构的全面控制权。当接受者取得收入时 各州在补助额的减少比率差异很大 4, Any income maintenance system must deal with several issue, including the conflict between adequate support and good work incentives, welfare dependence, work requirements, and state versus federal administration 任何收入维持制度都必须定涉及许多问题,包括适当支持与良好工作激励、福利依赖、工作要求之间 的冲突,以及是由州政府管理还是由联邦政府管理。 5, The earned income tax credit(EITC) provides a subsidy to the wages of qualified low-income individuals. The phaseout of the erTC after earnings exceed a certain threshold imposes a high
8 distribution of income is irrelevant as long as the distribution arises from a “fair” process. 其他一些观点屏弃了功利主义者的理论框架。一些人认为收入，至少是特定的产品，平等的分配是第 一法则。其他的观点则认为，收入分配是无关紧要的，只要它源于一种“公平”的过程。 6, a government program can change relative prices, creating losses and gains for various individuals. It is difficult to trace all of these price changes, so economists generally focus only on the prices in the markets directly affected. 一项政府的政策可以改变相对价格，引起不同的个体的得利或者损失。要追踪所有的价格变化是困难 的，因此，经济学家只关注直接受影响的市场价格。 7, because people do not reveal how they value public goods, it is difficult to determine how these goods affect real incomes. 由于人们并不显示他们对公共产品的评价，因此，确定这些产品如何影响真实收入是困难的。 8, many government programs provide goods and services (in -kind transfers) instead of cash. Recipients are not legally allowed to sell the goods and services so received. If recipients would prefer to consume less, the value of the in-kind transfer is less than the market price. 许多政府方案提供产品和服务（实物转移）而非现金。获得者在法律上不被允许出售这些获得的产品 和服务。如果获得者偏好少消费一些这些产品，实物转移的价值便会低于其市场价格。 9, the prevalence of in-kind transfer programs may be due to paternalism, commodity egalitarianism, administrative feasibility , or political attractiveness. 实物转移方案的广泛存在可能归于父爱主义，商品平等主义，管理上的可行性，或者政治上的吸引力。 Chapter 8 李晨曦 03391080 胡名栋 03391071 李俭 03391082 1, Means-tested programs transfer income to people whose resource fall below a certain level .Government means-tested programs are about 4.1 percent of GDP. 以经济情况调查结果为基础的计划，向收入低于某一平均水平的人转移收入。政府的这类计划支出额 约占 GDP 的 4。1％ 2, The current program of cash assistance, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF),was enacted in 1996. It removed the entitlement to cash benefits. In general, recipients cannot receive cash transfers for more than five years, and after two years they must take part in some work-related activity. 1996 年开始实行对贫困家庭的临时补助计划，废除了享有现金补助的公民权利性计划。一般来说， 接受者获得现金转移不得超过 5 年，两年之后他们必须参加与某种工作活动。 3, Under TANF, the sates have virtually total control over the structure of their welfare systems. States vary considerably in the rates at which they reduce benefits when recipients earn income. 这次改革的一个重要特点是，各州实际上拥有对福利制度结构的全面控制权。当接受者取得收入时， 各州在补助额的减少比率差异很大。 4, Any income maintenance system must deal with several issue, including the conflict between adequate support and good work incentives, welfare dependence, work requirements, and state versus federal administration. 任何收入维持制度都必须定涉及许多问题，包括适当支持与良好工作激励、福利依赖、工作要求之间 的冲突，以及是由州政府管理还是由联邦政府管理。 5, The earned income tax credit (EITC) provides a subsidy to the wages of qualified low-income individuals. The phaseout of the EITC after earnings exceed a certain threshold imposes a high
implicit marginal tax rate on earnings. Although administered through the tax system, it is now the most important program for cash transfers to the poor. 所得税抵免提供一笔津贴给低收入的人们。当人们的收入超过一定的数额时再向人们的个人所得课征 笔税金。这个控制税收的系统,现在对穷人们来说相当重要。 6, Supplemental Security Income (SSi) provides cash grants to the aged, blind, or disabled 补充性保障收入向老人、盲人或残疾人提供现金补助。 7, Medicaid, the largest spending program for the poor, provides certain medical services at no charge Medicaid partially crowds out private medical insurance. 医疗补助是扶贫指出话最大的项目,免费提供某些医疗服务。公共医疗补助部分地推出私人医疗保险 8, A food stamp is a voucher that can be used only for the purchase of food. Food stamps apper to induce more food consumption than an equivalent amount of cash 食品券是只能用来购买食品的凭证。食品券似乎比等量的现金能引致更多的食品消费 9, In the past, housing assistance in the United States focused on the creation of public housing for poor. The Section 8 program now provides a small number of recipients with housing vouchers to pay the rent on dwellings of their choice. 在过去,美国的住房补助主要是穷人建新公房。现在,第8条计划向少量接受者提供房租券,用来支 付他们选择住房的房租。 10, The goal of education and job-training programs is to enhance the ability of the poor to support themselves in the future. The efficacy of job-training programs does not appear to very substantiaL However, compensatory education for children, such as Head Start, leads to long-term improvement in educational attainment and education 教育和职业培训计划的目的,是向提高穷人未来的自立能力。职业培训计划的功效似乎并不大。然而 对儿童的教育补助,在长期中达到教育进步的目标 Chapter9社会保障 林阿端(03391085)林罡(03391086)邱强(03391095) 1. Social insurance may be justified on grounds of adverse selection, decision-making costs, income distribution, or paternalism 社会保险存在的理由可能有逆向选择、决策成本、收入分配和家长主义 2. Social Security (oASDi)is the largest social insurance program, indeed the largest domestic spending program. It providers retirement incomes for the aged 社会保障是最大的社会保险计划,实际上也是最大的国内开支计划。它为老年人提供退休收入 3. Social Security benefits are calculated in two steps. Average indexed monthly earnings(AIME) are derived from the workers history and determine the primary insurance amount (PIA). To compute actual benefits, the Pia is adjusted by an amount depending on retirement age, family status, and other earnings. 社会保障金分两步计算。首先根据工人的收入历史来确定月均指数化收入,并确定基本保障额 (PIA)。然后,根据退休年龄、家庭状况和其他收入来调整基本保障额,计算出实际养老金 4. The Social Security system is pay-as-you-go. Current benefits are financed by taxes on current workers 社会保障制度是现收现付的。当前的保障金是从当前的税收收入中取得的 5. the Social Security trust fund is essentially an accounting device and by itself dose not enhance society,'s ability to care for retirees in the future. 社会保障制度是部分积累制。虽然目前的养老金大部分是用对当前工人课征的税收来筹资的,但
9 implicit marginal tax rate on earnings. Although administered through the tax system , it is now the most important program for cash transfers to the poor. 所得税抵免提供一笔津贴给低收入的人们。当人们的收入超过一定的数额时再向人们的个人所得课征 一笔税金。这个控制税收的系统，现在对穷人们来说相当重要。 6, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) provides cash grants to the aged, blind, or disabled. 补充性保障收入向老人、盲人或残疾人提供现金补助。 7, Medicaid, the largest spending program for the poor, provides certain medical services at no charge. Medicaid partially crowds out private medical insurance. 医疗补助是扶贫指出话最大的项目，免费提供某些医疗服务。公共医疗补助部分地推出私人医疗保险。 8, A food stamp is a voucher that can be used only for the purchase of food .Food stamps apper to induce more food consumption than an equivalent amount of cash. 食品券是只能用来购买食品的凭证。食品券似乎比等量的现金能引致更多的食品消费。 9, In the past , housing assistance in the United States focused on the creation of public housing for poor. The Section 8 program now provides a small number of recipients with housing vouchers to pay the rent on dwellings of their choice. 在过去，美国的住房补助主要是穷人建新公房。现在，第 8 条计划向少量接受者提供房租券，用来支 付他们选择住房的房租。 10, The goal of education and job-training programs is to enhance the ability of the poor to support themselves in the future. The efficacy of job-training programs does not appear to very substantial. However, compensatory education for children, such as Head Start ,leads to long-term improvements in educational attainment and education. 教育和职业培训计划的目的，是向提高穷人未来的自立能力。职业培训计划的功效似乎并不大。然而 对儿童的教育补助，在长期中达到教育进步的目标。 Chapter 9 社会保障 林阿端（03391085） 林罡（03391086）邱强（03391095） 1. Social insurance may be justified on grounds of adverse selection, decision-making costs, income distribution, or paternalism. 社会保险存在的理由可能有逆向选择、决策成本、收入分配和家长主义。 2. Social Security (OASDI) is the largest social insurance program, indeed the largest domestic spending program. It providers retirement incomes for the aged. 社会保障是最大的社会保险计划，实际上也是最大的国内开支计划。它为老年人提供退休收入. 3. Social Security benefits are calculated in two steps. Average indexed monthly earnings (AIME) are derived from the worker’s history and determine the primary insurance amount (PIA). To compute actual benefits, the PIA is adjusted by an amount depending on retirement age, family status, and other earnings. 社会保障金分两步计算。首先根据工人的收入历史来确定月均指数化收入，并确定基本保障额 （PIA）。然后，根据退休年龄、家庭状况和其他收入来调整基本保障额，计算出实际养老金。 4. The Social Security system is pay-as-you-go. Current benefits are financed by taxes on current workers. 社会保障制度是现收现付的。当前的保障金是从当前的税收收入中取得的。 5. The Social Security trust fund is essentially an accounting device, and by itself dose not enhance society’s ability to care for retirees in the future. 社会保障制度是部分积累制。虽然目前的养老金大部分是用对当前工人课征的税收来筹资的，但
将来,养老金用社会保障信托基金的积累资金来支付 6. Broadly speaking, Social Security redistributes incomes from high-to-low income individuals from men to women, and from young to old One-earner married couples tend to gain relative to either two-earner couples or individuals 笼统地讲,社会保障把收入从高收入者再分配给低收入者,从男性再分配给女性,从年轻人再分 配给老年人。单职工夫妇往往比双职工夫妇或个人获益更多。 7. Over time, the economic status of the elderly has improved Social security benefits have played an important role in the development. 随着时间的推移,老年人的经济状况有了很大改善。社会保障金在这个变化过程中起到了重要作 用 8. Social Security may reduce private saving--the wealth substitution effect-or increase saving-the retirement and bequest effects. A reasonable conclusion on the basis of the econometric results is that saving has been reduced but by how much is not clear 社会保障可能减少私人储蓄(财富替代效应),或増加储蓄(退休效应和遗增效应)。根据经济计 量分析的结果,得出的一个合理结论是,储蓄减少了,但减少了多少并不清楚 9. The percentage of retired older workers has increased dramatically since the introduction of social Security. This is at least partially the result of work disincentives in the system 自从实行社会保障制度以来,退休老年工人的比例大大增加了。这至少部分是由该制度存在的工 作抑制作用造成的。 10. Social security taxes are project to fall short of benefits starting in about 2016. One possible response is to privatize the system-allow individuals to invest some or all of the contributions as they see fit. while such plans are worth of considering one must remember that unless a giving proposal lead to increased saving in the present, it will not help ease the burden of providing for the elderly in the future. 预计到2034年社会保障信托基金就会告罄。一种可能的对策就是将该制度私有化一允许个人将 其缴款的一部分或全部进行投资。虽然这种方案值得考虑,但我们必须记住,除非某一议案能使 现在的储蓄增加,否则它将无助于减轻将来向老年人提供养老金的负担 11. The unemployment insurance system has imperfect experien ce ratings for employs Moreover its benefits are frequently a substantial proportion of prior earings. Both these factors increase unemployment. 对雇主来说,失业保险制度的经验定率制是不完善的。而且,失业保险金占以前收入的比例往往 很大。这两个因素使失业增加 Chapter 10 Social Insurance I: Health Care Summary 03391101王玲玲03391102王娜03391106王新 O Health markets may be inefficient because of poor information, and because of the adverse selection and moral hazard problems associated with health insurance. 由于信息贫乏,再加上健康保险出现的逆向选择和道德风险问题,保健市场可能是无效率的。 O Most private medical insurance is provided through employers as a benefit to their employees. 大多数私人医疗保险由雇主作为一种福利提供给雇员
10 将来，养老金用社会保障信托基金的积累资金来支付。 6. Broadly speaking, Social Security redistributes incomes from high-to-low income individuals from men to women, and from young to old. One-earner married couples tend to gain relative to either two-earner couples or individuals. 笼统地讲，社会保障把收入从高收入者再分配给低收入者，从男性再分配给女性，从年轻人再分 配给老年人。单职工夫妇往往比双职工夫妇或个人获益更多。 7. Over time, the economic status of the elderly has improved. Social Security benefits have played an important role in the development. 随着时间的推移，老年人的经济状况有了很大改善。社会保障金在这个变化过程中起到了重要作 用。 8. Social Security may reduce private saving--the wealth substitution effect—or increase saving—the retirement and bequest effects. A reasonable conclusion on the basis of the econometric results is that saving has been reduced, but by how much is not clear. 社会保障可能减少私人储蓄（财富替代效应），或增加储蓄（退休效应和遗增效应）。根据经济计 量分析的结果，得出的一个合理结论是，储蓄减少了，但减少了多少并不清楚。 9. The percentage of retired older workers has increased dramatically since the introduction of Social Security. This is at least partially the result of work disincentives in the system. 自从实行社会保障制度以来，退休老年工人的比例大大增加了。这至少部分是由该制度存在的工 作抑制作用造成的。 10. Social Security taxes are project to fall short of benefits starting in about 2016. One possible response is to privatize the system—allow individuals to invest some or all of the contributions as they see fit. While such plans are worth of considering, one must remember that unless a giving proposal lead to increased saving in the present, it will not help ease the burden of providing for the elderly in the future. 预计到 2034 年社会保障信托基金就会告罄。一种可能的对策就是将该制度私有化—允许个人将 其缴款的一部分或全部进行投资。虽然这种方案值得考虑，但我们必须记住，除非某一议案能使 现在的储蓄增加，否则它将无助于减轻将来向老年人提供养老金的负担。 11. The unemployment insurance system has imperfect experience ratings for employs. Moreover, its benefits are frequently a substantial proportion of prior earings. Both these factors increase unemployment. 对雇主来说，失业保险制度的经验定率制是不完善的。而且，失业保险金占以前收入的比例往往 很大。这两个因素使失业增加。 Chapter 10 Social Insurance Ⅱ: Health Care Summary 03391101 王玲玲 03391102 王娜 03391106 王新 ●Health markets may be inefficient because of poor information, and because of the adverse selection and moral hazard problems associated with health insurance. 由于信息贫乏，再加上健康保险出现的逆向选择和道德风险问题，保健市场可能是无效率的。 ●Most private medical insurance is provided through employers as a benefit to their employees. 大多数私人医疗保险由雇主作为一种福利提供给雇员