《食品包装技术》（英文版）Chapter 25 Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution

All engineering, manufacturing, quality and sales efforts are wasted if your transport packaging fails and your customer receives a damaged product'(ISTA).! 25.1 Introduction: the supply chain for perishable foods Food is a perishable product. It is temperature-, moisture-, and time-sensitive, compared to books, automobile parts, and clothes, however they are shipped

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536 Novel food packaging techniques facts very well, but there are several steps during transportation where one has no or very limited knowledge of the special requirements or needs of perishable products(harbours, airports, transport terminals). Also, a consumer may purchase products and expose them to too high temperatures or otherwise wrong storage conditions before they are eaten As an example, let us look at the shipment of bananas to Finland where they are everyday commodities throughout the year. What follows are the stages on the route of bananas from tree to table A half-ripe banana cluster is cut from a banana tree It is lifted to a hook of a cableway The cableway transports the banana cluster to the packaging area he banana cluster is rinsed The washed cluster is cut into smaller bunches, usually of about five bananas each Cut bananas are washed Bananas are lifted into a plastic tray, each tray containing about 18kg of bananas The plastic tray is transported to the weighing station Weighed bananas are sprayed with a biocide Banana groups are brand labelled Bananas are moved from the trays into transportation boxes Boxes are stamped with packing date and location. Boxes are lifted on a pallet Pallet loads are transferred to containers Containers are transported to the harbour Containers are lifted to a ship Banana containers are monitored for temperature during the sea trip, which takes about two weeks Containers are unloaded from the ship in Sweden Banana pallet loads are transported to the ship terminal The temperature of the bananas is checked Banana pallet loads are loaded onto a lorry The lorry drives onboard a ship sailing to Finland The lorry drives the bananas to a building where the bananas are allowed ripen Bananas and their temperature are checked on arrival Bananas are moved into a maturing room in order to ripen During the ripening process, which takes about six days, the bananas are checked daily for their temperature and degree of ripeness After ripening the bananas are transferred to a collection point There the banana boxes are lifted either onto a trolley or onto a pallet d to the

facts very well, but there are several steps during transportation where one has no or very limited knowledge of the special requirements or needs of perishable products (harbours, airports, transport terminals). Also, a consumer may purchase products and expose them to too high temperatures or otherwise wrong storage conditions before they are eaten. As an example, let us look at the shipment of bananas to Finland where they are everyday commodities throughout the year. What follows are the stages on the route of bananas from tree to table. • A half-ripe banana cluster is cut from a banana tree. • It is lifted to a hook of a cableway. • The cableway transports the banana cluster to the packaging area. • The banana cluster is rinsed. • The washed cluster is cut into smaller bunches, usually of about five bananas each. • Cut bananas are washed. • Bananas are lifted into a plastic tray, each tray containing about 18kg of bananas. • The plastic tray is transported to the weighing station. • Weighed bananas are sprayed with a biocide. • Banana groups are brand labelled. • Bananas are moved from the trays into transportation boxes. • Boxes are stamped with packing date and location. • Boxes are lifted on a pallet. • Pallet loads are transferred to containers. • Containers are transported to the harbour. • Containers are lifted to a ship. • Banana containers are monitored for temperature during the sea trip, which takes about two weeks. • Containers are unloaded from the ship in Sweden. • Banana pallet loads are transported to the ship terminal. • The temperature of the bananas is checked. • Banana pallet loads are loaded onto a lorry. • The lorry drives onboard a ship sailing to Finland. • Second sea voyage. • The lorry drives the bananas to a building where the bananas are allowed to ripen. • Bananas and their temperature are checked on arrival. • Bananas are moved into a maturing room in order to ripen. • During the ripening process, which takes about six days, the bananas are checked daily for their temperature and degree of ripeness. • After ripening the bananas are transferred to a collection point. • There the banana boxes are lifted either onto a trolley or onto a pallet. • The full trolley or the pallet load is transported to the right gate on the shipping area. 536 Novel food packaging techniques

Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 537 The driver brings the trolley or the pallet to his truck ed to the shop The driver moves the trolley to the inspection area of the shop The shopkeeper checks and accepts the product Depending on sales the products are put on sale o Bananas are moved to the storage area of the sho The boxes are opened and the bananas are put on display A consumer chooses some bananas and packs them into a bag The bananas are weighed A price label is attached to the bag The customer goes to the till Customer puts the product on the cashier line The scanner reads the price and gives the storekeeper information on the amount of bananas sold The customer packs the products into a carrier bag and takes them home Leppaaho, 2002) The above list shows that bananas were exposed to several different temperature and moisture conditions. They were handled frequently and moved from place to place using a wide variety of transporting media 25.1.2Effect of distance, time, shock, vibration, air pressure, tempera and moisture to the products Transportation can be a long and time consuming process involving several them to shock, vibration, air pressure, and moisture variations in addition to ti different packaging can improve or destroy the quality of a specific product (such as Chonhenchob et al on mangoes, 2002) Distribution packaging is generally tested by integrity and general simulation tests before shipment. The first step in the focused simulation test is to quantify, by actual field measurement, the distribution hazards on the packaged products in terms of their intensities and other conditions. For example, drops and impacts are measured, and the data is analysed according to the height or velocity, package orientation at impact, and frequency of occurrence. Vehicle vibrations are measured, with the data typically analysed as power spectral density plots according to the vehicle type and lading conditions, and time durations(or with a given relationship of time to trip length). Compression is measured in vehicles and warehouses, and data analysed to time and superimposed conditions. Atmos- pheric profiles are measured, and data analysed in terms of extremes, rates of change, and combinations. The measurements have become possible with the help of the currently available small, self-contained electronic field data recorders (Kipp, 2002). These instruments can record both static and dynamic information in order to get the required analyses. They are often smaller in size than a brick

• The driver brings the trolley or the pallet to his truck. • Bananas are transported to the shop. • The driver moves the trolley to the inspection area of the shop. • The shopkeeper checks and accepts the product. • Bananas are moved to the storage area of the shop. • Depending on sales the products are put on sale. • The boxes are opened and the bananas are put on display. • A consumer chooses some bananas and packs them into a bag • The bananas are weighed. • A price label is attached to the bag. • The customer goes to the till. • Customer puts the product on the cashier line. • The scanner reads the price and gives the storekeeper information on the amount of bananas sold. • The customer packs the products into a carrier bag and takes them home (Leppa¨aho, 2002).2 The above list shows that bananas were exposed to several different temperature and moisture conditions. They were handled frequently and moved from place to place using a wide variety of transporting media. 25.1.2 Effect of distance, time, shock, vibration, air pressure, temperature and moisture to the products Transportation can be a long and time consuming process involving several handling steps, as the banana case illustrates. Transportation of goods exposures them to shock, vibration, air pressure, and moisture variations in addition to time and temperature. There are several studies on the vulnerability of foods, and how different packaging can improve or destroy the quality of a specific product (such as Chonhenchob et al. on mangoes, 2002).3 Distribution packaging is generally tested by integrity and general simulation tests before shipment. The first step in the focused simulation test is to quantify, by actual field measurement, the distribution hazards on the packaged products in terms of their intensities and other conditions. For example, drops and impacts are measured, and the data is analysed according to the height or velocity, package orientation at impact, and frequency of occurrence. Vehicle vibrations are measured, with the data typically analysed as power spectral density plots according to the vehicle type and lading conditions, and time durations (or with a given relationship of time to trip length). Compression is measured in vehicles and warehouses, and data analysed to time and superimposed conditions. Atmospheric profiles are measured, and data analysed in terms of extremes, rates of change, and combinations. The measurements have become possible with the help of the currently available small, self-contained electronic field data recorders. (Kipp, 2002).4 These instruments can record both static and dynamic information in order to get the required analyses. They are often smaller in size than a brick. Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 537

538 Novel food packaging techniques Unique systems must be designed, if temperature and humidity sensitive roducts are ordered by e-mail and shipped to other places( Singh, 2000). Since fresh produce continues to respire after being harvested, this causes an intake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide. The respiration rate of fruits, vegetables nd flowers is dependent on temperature. An increase of package storage temperature results in an exponential increase in respiration rate that shortens the shelf-life of the produce, resulting in eventual decay. The United States Department of Agriculture has documented this information on recommended storage temperature, relative humidity and approximate shelf-life for various fresh produce(Welby et al., 1997). Most fresh produce has a high moisture content,so it is important to maintain a high humidity environment during transportation in order to prevent moisture loss that would result in drying of the produce. USDA recommends a high humidity environment(80-95% relative humidity) for most fresh produce. Possible solutions include cooling aids and S A company in the USA selling expensive meat parts by e-mail has found an ially insulated packaging materials(Singh, 2002a).7 interesting method for chilling their goods. Instead of shipping meat pieces with cooling aids and fillers, frozen hamburgers are packed into the boxes serving as polers and fillers. The customer gets a usable give-away and the extras increase the incentive for a further purchase(Singh, 2002b) 25.2 The role of packaging in the supply chain The main duties of packaging are to protect, contain, inform, and sell. The right packaging also preserves, as the products are received in a good and usable condition. The package needed for protection is a combination of product characteristics and logistical hazards. Well chosen packaging can reduce the cost of every logistical activity: transport, storage, handling, inventory control, and customer service. It can reduce the cost of damage, safety, and disposal Integrated management of packaging and logistics is required, if a firm is to realise such opportunities to reduce costs(Twede, 1997) 25. 2.1 Interviewing the food industry and trade Tekes, the National Agency of Finland, finances the "Safety and Information in Packaging program in Finland. There have been studies on the needs and wishes of industry and trade in order to gather information for directing the research program. During the summer of 2001 Pakkausteknologia- PTR(Association of Packaging Technology and Research) asked for the opinions of the Finnish food industry with a questionnaire of 93 questions(Pikkarainen et al., 2002) Answers were received from producers of dry foods(sugar, flour), beverages, and ready-to eat foods, dairy products, and so on, covering the different sectors of food industry. Shocks, compression, changes in temperature and packaging closing methods all cause packaging problems for the food industry(Fig. 25. 1)

Unique systems must be designed, if temperature and humidity sensitive products are ordered by e-mail and shipped to other places (Singh, 2000).5 Since fresh produce continues to respire after being harvested, this causes an intake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide. The respiration rate of fruits, vegetables and flowers is dependent on temperature. An increase of package storage temperature results in an exponential increase in respiration rate that shortens the shelf-life of the produce, resulting in eventual decay. The United States Department of Agriculture has documented this information on recommended storage temperature, relative humidity and approximate shelf-life for various fresh produce (Welby et al., 1997).6 Most fresh produce has a high moisture content, so it is important to maintain a high humidity environment during transportation in order to prevent moisture loss that would result in drying of the produce. USDA recommends a high humidity environment (80–95% relative humidity) for most fresh produce. Possible solutions include cooling aids and specially insulated packaging materials (Singh, 2002a).7 A company in the USA selling expensive meat parts by e-mail has found an interesting method for chilling their goods. Instead of shipping meat pieces with cooling aids and fillers, frozen hamburgers are packed into the boxes serving as coolers and fillers. The customer gets a usable give-away and the extras increase the incentive for a further purchase (Singh, 2002b).8 25.2 The role of packaging in the supply chain The main duties of packaging are to protect, contain, inform, and sell. The right packaging also preserves, as the products are received in a good and usable condition. The package needed for protection is a combination of product characteristics and logistical hazards. Well chosen packaging can reduce the cost of every logistical activity: transport, storage, handling, inventory control, and customer service. It can reduce the cost of damage, safety, and disposal. Integrated management of packaging and logistics is required, if a firm is to realise such opportunities to reduce costs (Twede, 1997).9 25.2.1 Interviewing the food industry and trade Tekes, the National Agency of Finland, finances the ‘Safety and Information in Packaging’ program in Finland. There have been studies on the needs and wishes of industry and trade in order to gather information for directing the research program. During the summer of 2001 Pakkausteknologia – PTR (Association of Packaging Technology and Research) asked for the opinions of the Finnish food industry with a questionnaire of 93 questions (Pikkarainen et al., 2002).10 Answers were received from producers of dry foods (sugar, flour), beverages, and ready-to eat foods, dairy products, and so on, covering the different sectors of food industry. Shocks, compression, changes in temperature and packaging closing methods all cause packaging problems for the food industry (Fig. 25.1). 538 Novel food packaging techniques

Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 539 Closing of packaging Leakage Moisture changes Change of temperature Other gases Static electricity 1, 3 Vibration Shocks Compression Others I not a problem =>7 major problem Fig. 25.1 Possible causes of trouble in packaging in food industry. Presented as an average of all answers. No problems at all is indicated by number 1, and 7 is given if major problems(Pikkarainen et al, 2002) The interviewees wished to gather more information on the following aspects: circumstances during the storage and transport, temperature changes, breakage of cold chain, and leak detection. They preferred additional properties to be within the packaging material, and also that the new properties would be in transport packages instead of consumer packages. They particularly wanted an active tag or a smart card containing memory to be developed for the distribution package rather than for the consumer package. The main reason is probably the price of the tags. If it were only a few cents then the tags would be accepted also for consumer packages. The profit margin in the food sector is low and therefore all additional costs must be carefully considered Different information is required in consumer packages than in transport and distribution packages. The information in a consumer package is aimed at the consumers, retailers and other parties in the trade need information on distribution and storage conditions. All who replied wished to know about the cold chain, especially if it had been interrupted. Monitoring the temperature during distribution was an important aspect (Fig. 25.2). Only those whose products were not sensitive to temperature did not consider it very important The majority (70%)also preferred the indicator to record information during distribution In the 'Safety and Information in Packaging program the storekeepers in Finland were also interviewed by Pakkausteknologia-PTR(Association of Packaging Technology and Research). All who were interviewed, mentioned that the most important aspects were the retail packages(the size should be right for the size of the store), environmental aspects, economics, alarm systems, and

The interviewees wished to gather more information on the following aspects: circumstances during the storage and transport, temperature changes, breakage of cold chain, and leak detection. They preferred additional properties to be within the packaging material, and also that the new properties would be in transport packages instead of consumer packages. They particularly wanted an active tag or a smart card containing memory to be developed for the distribution package rather than for the consumer package. The main reason is probably the price of the tags. If it were only a few cents then the tags would be accepted also for consumer packages. The profit margin in the food sector is low and therefore all additional costs must be carefully considered. Different information is required in consumer packages than in transport and distribution packages. The information in a consumer package is aimed at the consumers; retailers and other parties in the trade need information on distribution and storage conditions. All who replied wished to know about the cold chain, especially if it had been interrupted. Monitoring the temperature during distribution was an important aspect (Fig. 25.2). Only those whose products were not sensitive to temperature did not consider it very important. The majority (70%) also preferred the indicator to record information during distribution. In the ‘Safety and Information in Packaging’ program the storekeepers in Finland were also interviewed by Pakkausteknologia – PTR (Association of Packaging Technology and Research). All who were interviewed, mentioned that the most important aspects were the retail packages (the size should be right for the size of the store), environmental aspects, economics, alarm systems, and Fig. 25.1 Possible causes of trouble in packaging in food industry. Presented as an average of all answers. No problems at all is indicated by number 1, and 7 is given if major problems (Pikkarainen et al., 2002). Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 539

Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 541 the distribution conditions are also checked with shock and vibration devices or continuous expensive devices, which monitor the time and temperature and moisture conditions during distribution. There is a need to develop an economic integrated system that would serve the different aspects of the whole chain. A producer wants traceability and an easy way to recall a product from the market Low inventories and feed-back systems are also desirable There is also a desire to check every actual shipment for environmental effects, and for shocks and vibrations. The main reason is to get information about where and when possible mishandlings occur so that responsibilities, liabilities, and improvements can be det termined. Presently the price of the recorders and the difficulty of returning used recorders exert a pressure to develop cheaper systems that could even be added to each shipment. However, the achieved savings must be bigger than the cost 25.3.1 Alarm systems It is estimated that shoplifters account for a $10 billion annual loss in the American retail trade. Retailers have struggled to reduce these losses by various means. Early electronic devices were cumbersome, and their cost meant that they had to be removed at the checkout counter and used again. A modern EAS (electronic article surveillance)device is paper-thin and the size of a postage stamp. The EAS is attached to the package or product. As more and more retailers are asking their suppliers to include EAs tags on their products, the problem of tagging merchandise is shifting from the retailer to the package supplier. The two systems, which are currently much in use, are acoustomagnetic and radio frequency technology. EAs will set off an alarm when the active device is passed though an EAs detection system Acoustomagnetic uses 58 kilohertz. Demagnetising the strip or altering its magnetic properties so that it resonates at different frequency inactivates the alarm(Soroka, 1999) 25.3. 2 In-house control t the moment all different stages of the food chain do their own in-house control tests. The storage facilities usually have temperature recorders, but how well the right temperature is maintained near doors and walkways is open to question. Is the capacity enough to cool a warmed product fast enough? The most common tests are plain visual checks, but the lorries usually have temperature recorders if they transport frozen or chilled foods. The store checks product temperatures at arrival. These sporadic tests, however, do not give continuous information. By using TTI indicators the time and temperature combined effects could be better monitored. When used in distribution packages the cost of the indicator is divided between several consumer packages

the distribution conditions are also checked with shock and vibration devices or continuous expensive devices, which monitor the time and temperature and moisture conditions during distribution. There is a need to develop an economic integrated system that would serve the different aspects of the whole chain. A producer wants traceability and an easy way to recall a product from the market. Low inventories and feed-back systems are also desirable. There is also a desire to check every actual shipment for environmental effects, and for shocks and vibrations. The main reason is to get information about where and when possible mishandlings occur so that responsibilities, liabilities, and improvements can be determined. Presently the price of the recorders and the difficulty of returning used recorders exert a pressure to develop cheaper systems that could even be added to each shipment. However, the achieved savings must be bigger than the costs. 25.3.1 Alarm systems It is estimated that shoplifters account for a $10 billion annual loss in the American retail trade. Retailers have struggled to reduce these losses by various means. Early electronic devices were cumbersome, and their cost meant that they had to be removed at the checkout counter and used again. A modern EAS (electronic article surveillance) device is paper-thin and the size of a postage stamp. The EAS is attached to the package or product. As more and more retailers are asking their suppliers to include EAS tags on their products, the problem of tagging merchandise is shifting from the retailer to the package supplier. The two systems, which are currently much in use, are acoustomagnetic and radio frequency technology. EAS will set off an alarm when the active device is passed though an EAS detection system. Acoustomagnetic uses 58 kilohertz. Demagnetising the strip or altering its magnetic properties so that it resonates at different frequency inactivates the alarm (Soroka, 1999).12 25.3.2 In-house control At the moment all different stages of the food chain do their own in-house control tests. The storage facilities usually have temperature recorders, but how well the right temperature is maintained near doors and walkways is open to question. Is the capacity enough to cool a warmed product fast enough? The most common tests are plain visual checks, but the lorries usually have temperature recorders if they transport frozen or chilled foods. The store checks product temperatures at arrival. These sporadic tests, however, do not give continuous information. By using TTI indicators the time and temperature combined effects could be better monitored. When used in distribution packages the cost of the indicator is divided between several consumer packages. Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 541

542 Novel food packaging techniques 25.4 Tracea bility: radio frequency identification 25.4.1 Automatic identification Automatic identification is a generic term describing various methods of data collection and entry. Automatic data collection reduces human error and speeds up the work. There are varying types of Auto ID operating in the world, many encountered on a daily basis without the users truly being aware of them Examples of these are: card technologies, scanning devices, machine vision optical character recognition, speech/voice recognition, radio frequency identification. Associated with an increase in entry accuracy is an overall reduction of costs as well as time savings there are additional benefits that can be derived as well including, where appropriate, increased product or service quality, increased productivity and a reduction in inventory 25.4.2 requency Identification(RFID) RFID ontact, wireless, data communication form where tags of some material embedded with an IC chip, are programmed with unique information and attached to objects for identification and tracking. The information can be location, product name or code, expiration/product date etc, depending on what is required. As tagged items pass by readers, the data from the tags is decoded and transferred to a host computer for processing. RFID offers practical benefits over other automatic data capture systems: a line-of- sight is not needed, it has the ability to read multiple tags simul taneously even on the move, and it is possible to write information to the tag, and so on( Clarke RFID tag also identifies the article as a unique product. This increases the possibility of using the technique for recall and tracing There are several recent articles on RFID. Articles portray a world where the items give detailed information and can communicate with each other without human intervention(Chips, 2002, Covell, 2002). , There are also several names used: RFID tag, smart card, smart label. One of the questions is when should the RFID tag replace EAN-code in fast-moving consumer goods(FMCG)? Will it be in the next ten years or will there be only a limited use of rDIF tags? The present guess is that RFID will come first to returnable systems, such as pallets, crates and so on and later to distribution packages and to more expensive consumer go ods. The main incentive to pursuing the system will be that some big retail chain such as Wal-Mart, or a producer, demands it in order to get real-time visibility in their supply chains ctually Wal-Mart and Procter Gamble are carrying out preliminary tests with transponders on pallets. Wal-Mart has fitted out two distribution centres as well one Sams Club and one Wal-Mart store with the technology in the supply chain. The software provider is SAP (LebensmittelZeitung. com, 2002) Actually, simple RFID tags are already are in use, library systems, bus and ki tickets, garment tracking, product handshaking (embedded systems). In warehouses and distribution centres some applications are in development. To

25.4 Traceability: radio frequency identification 25.4.1 Automatic identification Automatic identification is a generic term describing various methods of data collection and entry. Automatic data collection reduces human error and speeds up the work. There are varying types of Auto ID operating in the world, many encountered on a daily basis without the users truly being aware of them. Examples of these are: card technologies, scanning devices, machine vision, optical character recognition, speech/voice recognition, radio frequency identification. Associated with an increase in entry accuracy is an overall reduction of costs as well as time savings. There are additional benefits that can be derived as well including, where appropriate, increased product or service quality, increased productivity and a reduction in inventory. 25.4.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) RFID is a non-contact, wireless, data communication form where tags of some material, usually embedded with an IC chip, are programmed with unique information and attached to objects for identification and tracking. The information can be location, product name or code, expiration/product date, etc., depending on what is required. As tagged items pass by readers, the data from the tags is decoded and transferred to a host computer for processing. RFID offers practical benefits over other automatic data capture systems: a line-ofsight is not needed, it has the ability to read multiple tags simultaneously even on the move, and it is possible to write information to the tag, and so on (Clarke, 2002).13 The main difference with EAS is that EAS gives only an alarm, but a RFID tag also identifies the article as a unique product. This increases the possibility of using the technique for recall and tracing. There are several recent articles on RFID. Articles portray a world where the items give detailed information and can communicate with each other without human intervention (Chips, 2002, Covell, 2002).14, 15 There are also several names used: RFID tag, smart card, smart label. One of the questions is when should the RFID tag replace EAN-code in fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)? Will it be in the next ten years or will there be only a limited use of RDIF tags? The present guess is that RFID will come first to returnable systems, such as pallets, crates and so on and later to distribution packages and to more expensive consumer goods. The main incentive to pursuing the system will be that some big retail chain such as Wal-Mart, or a producer, demands it in order to get real-time visibility in their supply chains. Actually Wal-Mart and Procter & Gamble are carrying out preliminary tests with transponders on pallets. Wal-Mart has fitted out two distribution centres as well as one Sam’s Club and one Wal-Mart store with the technology in the supply chain. The software provider is SAP (LebensmittelZeitung.com, 2002).16 Actually, simple RFID tags are already are in use, library systems, bus and ski tickets, garment tracking, product handshaking (embedded systems). In warehouses and distribution centres some applications are in development. To 542 Novel food packaging techniques

Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 543 read a pallet load manually with bar codes can take up to 30 minutes, but smart labels can be read up to 1000+ tags per second automatically. The ultimate goal is real-time ' people-free visibility throughout the supply chain. Trends and factors that affect the success of RFid tags, are the need for end-to-end visibility, the kind of investment that will be necessary, how open the infrastructure will be and the price level of systems RFID technology may need some explanation. It generally uses passive tags that contain a chip and an antenna. When a host system sends power to the tag, it responds to the reader giving the information inside the chip. The tag is passive so that it needs no battery with it. There are also active tags, which have a battery. Active tags can be used to record information during the shipment or can be used to give information from a longer distance. Even the passive tags ( transponders)and integrated host systems and readers make wireless data carrier technology available to manufacturer, supplier, retailer, and consumer Transponders can be added to labels, packages, and products rFid and standardisation There are several RFID frequencies in use: 125-134KHz, 13.56MHz, UHF 862 928MHZ, 2.45GHz, and 5.8GHz. In order to get a system that can work global there is a need for rfid standards. The following standards are available ISO/EC 15693-1: 2000 Identification cards-Contactless integrated circuit(s) cards- Vicinity cards-Part 1: Physical characteristics ISO/EC 15693-2: 2000 Identification cards-Contactless integrated circuit(s) ards-Vicinity cards- Part 2: Air interface and initialisation(available in ISO/EC 15693-2: 2000/Cor 1: 2001(available in English only) ISo/EC 15693-3: 2001 Identification cards-Contactless integrated circuit(s) cards- Vicinity cards Part 3: Anticollision and transmission protocol (available in English only) AIM(AsSociation for Automatic Identification and Data Capture Technologies) has listed in its web pages all different standards that may affect the usage of Rfid(wwW.Aimglobal. org 2001): 7 JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identification and data capture techniques JTC I/SC /7 Identification cards and related devices ISo TC 104/ SC 4 Identification and communication ISo TC 23 /SC 19 Agricultural electronics CEN/TC 278 Road transport and traffic telematics CEN/TC 23/SC 3/wG 3 Transportable gas cylinders requirements- identification of cylinders and contents 7SO/C204 Transport information and control systems ETS/ European Telecommunications Standards Institute ERO European Rad cations office

read a pallet load manually with bar codes can take up to 30 minutes, but smart labels can be read up to 1000 + tags per second automatically. The ultimate goal is real-time ‘people-free’ visibility throughout the supply chain. Trends and factors that affect the success of RFID tags, are the need for end-to-end visibility, the kind of investment that will be necessary, how open the infrastructure will be and the price level of systems. RFID technology may need some explanation. It generally uses passive tags that contain a chip and an antenna. When a host system sends power to the tag, it responds to the reader giving the information inside the chip. The tag is passive so that it needs no battery with it. There are also active tags, which have a battery. Active tags can be used to record information during the shipment or can be used to give information from a longer distance. Even the passive tags (transponders) and integrated host systems and readers make wireless data carrier technology available to manufacturer, supplier, retailer, and consumer. Transponders can be added to labels, packages, and products. RFID and standardisation There are several RFID frequencies in use: 125–134KHz, 13.56MHz, UHF 862– 928MHz, 2.45GHz, and 5.8GHz. In order to get a system that can work globally, there is a need for RFID standards. The following standards are available: • ISO/IEC 15693-1:2000 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s) cards – Vicinity cards – Part 1: Physical characteristics • ISO/IEC 15693-2:2000 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s) cards – Vicinity cards – Part 2: Air interface and initialisation (available in English only) • ISO/IEC 15693-2:2000/Cor 1:2001 (available in English only) • ISO/IEC 15693-3:2001 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s) cards – Vicinity cards – Part 3: Anticollision and transmission protocol (available in English only) AIM (Association for Automatic Identification and Data Capture Technologies) has listed in its web pages all different standards that may affect the usage of RFID (www.aimglobal.org, 2001):17 JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identification and data capture techniques JTC 1/SC 17 Identification cards and related devices ISO TC 104 / SC 4 Identification and communication ISO TC 23 / SC 19 Agricultural electronics CEN/TC 278 Road transport and traffic telematics CEN/TC 23/SC 3/WG 3 Transportable gas cylinders – operational requirements – identification of cylinders and contents ISO/TC204 Transport information and control systems ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute ERO European Radiocommunications Office Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 543

544 Novel food packaging techniques ANSi American national standards institute Universal Postal Union ASTM RFID now There was a major decision made in June 2002. EAN. UCC (EAN International and Uniform Code Council) has taken some steps to launch GTAG(EAN 2002).The technical foundation for GTAG-compliant products is aligned with standards being developed under the auspices of the international Organization for Standardization (ISO), and specifically the work of JTC1/SC31/WG4, and SG3. One of the deliverables from this Working Group and Sub-Group is a standard for the air interface(RF communications link) between reader and tags which, through technical due diligence, has been chosen by the GTAG Project Team as the interface for GTAG-compliant systems. This specification is Iso 18000-6. The present state of this specification is a Committee Draft(CD) Auto-ID Center is a strong global promoter of wireless identification echnologies. It is founded to develop network solutions and software for RFID technology and create an infrastructure throughout the entire retail supply chain Its message is to get the next wave of the Internet revolution going, all sorts of objects communicating with each other without people being involved (www.autoidcenter.com Finnish Rafsec supplies the intelligent tags, which support the Auto-ID Centers specifications for the low-cost tags(mass production from roll to roll) They cost now about 50 cents each. Rafsec produces the RFID transponders, the antenna and the fixing of the chip to the tag and antenna. The RFID chip generally contains memory from 512 bits to 2kb. The transponders are thin and flexible in form, they have read and write capabilities, and each chip is unique! So every product is unique after it is tagged! The information is coded in, the transponder is robust and it survives the whole life cycle and operates at temperatures from -25C to +70.C. It can for a short time stand even a temperature of 150oC, which means that it can survive in a car tyre or in an injection moulding. When using 1356MHz, the tag can be read from up to a one metre range at a relatively high data rate. A number of pilot projects are under way, but the threshold to use the systems is high(Savolainen, 2002a and The possibility of reading simultaneously through material at a distance provides interesting features. One can get exact information of a pallet load even hough some products are removed. Of course there are also weaknesses in RFID technology; metal affects the signal so it will not read products in a metal cage. Also liquid materials can affect readability(Cole, 2002)21 EAN. UCC has been active with RFID. The use of a RFID tag in the supply chain offers a solution to multiple labelling during logistics. When a product is produced the only known information is the product identification, the batch number, and the production date. The logistic, transport and customer information will be known later on. The unique RFiD tag would not replace

ANSI American National Standards Institute Universal Postal Union ASTM RFID now There was a major decision made in June 2002. EAN UCC (EAN International and Uniform Code Council) has taken some steps to launch GTAG (EAN 2002).18 The technical foundation for GTAG-compliant products is aligned with standards being developed under the auspices of the international Organization for Standardization (ISO), and specifically the work of JTC1/SC31/WG4, and SG3. One of the deliverables from this Working Group and Sub-Group is a standard for the air interface (RF communications link) between reader and tags, which, through technical due diligence, has been chosen by the GTAG Project Team as the interface for GTAG-compliant systems. This specification is ISO 18000-6. The present state of this specification is a Committee Draft (CD). Auto-ID Center is a strong global promoter of wireless identification technologies. It is founded to develop network solutions and software for RFID technology and create an infrastructure throughout the entire retail supply chain. Its message is to get the next wave of the Internet revolution going; ‘all sorts of objects communicating with each other without people being involved’ (www.autoidcenter.com). Finnish Rafsec supplies the intelligent tags, which support the Auto-ID Center´s specifications for the low-cost tags (mass production from roll to roll). They cost now about 50 cents each. Rafsec produces the RFID transponders, the antenna and the fixing of the chip to the tag and antenna. The RFID chip generally contains memory from 512 bits to 2kb. The transponders are thin and flexible in form, they have read and write capabilities, and each chip is unique! So every product is unique after it is tagged! The information is coded in, the transponder is robust and it survives the whole life cycle and operates at temperatures from ÿ25ºC to +70ºC. It can for a short time stand even a temperature of 150ºC, which means that it can survive in a car tyre or in an injection moulding. When using 13.56MHz, the tag can be read from up to a one metre range at a relatively high data rate. A number of pilot projects are under way, but the threshold to use the systems is high (Savolainen, 2002a and b).19, 20 The possibility of reading simultaneously through material at a distance provides interesting features. One can get exact information of a pallet load even though some products are removed. Of course there are also weaknesses in RFID technology; metal affects the signal so it will not read products in a metal cage. Also liquid materials can affect readability (Cole, 2002).21 EAN UCC has been active with RFID. The use of a RFID tag in the supply chain offers a solution to multiple labelling during logistics. When a product is produced the only known information is the product identification, the batch number, and the production date. The logistic, transport and customer information will be known later on. The unique RFID tag would not replace 544 Novel food packaging techniques

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