《复合材料 Composites》课程教学资源（学习资料）第二章 增强体_carbon fiber_A review of heat treatment on polyacrylonitrile fiber

Availableonlineatwww.sciencedirect.col Polvmer ScienceDirect Degradation Stability ELSEVIEI Polymer Degradation and Stability 92(2007)1421-1432 www.elsevier.com/locate/polydegstab Review article A review of heat treatment on polyacrylonitrile fiber M.S.A. Rahaman. A.F. Ismail.A Mustafa Membrane Research Unit(MRU), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia cdai 81310. Johor. Malaysia Received 23 January 2007: accepted 23 March 2007 Available online 14 April 2007 Abstract Developing carbon fiber from polyacrylonitrile(PAn) based fiber is generally subjected to three processes namely sta arboniza ion, and graphitization under controlled conditions. The Pan fiber is first stretched and simultaneously oxidized in a 200-300C. This treatment converts thermoplastic PAn to a non-plastic cyclic or a ladder compound. After oxidation, the f arbonized at about 1000C in inert atmosphere which is usually nitrogen. Then, in order to improve the ordering and orientation of the crystallites in the direction of the fiber axis, the fiber must be heated at about 1500-3000C until the polymer contains 92-100%o. High temperature process the timing of nitrogen. With better-controlled condition, the strength of the fiber can achieve up to 400 GPa after this pyrolysis process generally leads to higher modulus fibers which expel impurities in the chain as volatile by-products During heating treatment, the fiber shrinks in diameter, builds the structure into a large structure and upgrades the strength by removing the initial nitrogen content of pan precurso c 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd Keywords: Polyacrylonitrile; Heat treatment; Stabilization; Carbonization; Carbon fiber 1. Introduction a thermally stable, extremely oriented molecular structure when subjected to a low temperature treatment [9]. PAn fiber It has been documented that the majority of all carbon fi- was also preferred to be the precursor because of its fast rate in bers used today are made from PAN precursor, which is pyrolysis without changing its basic structure [9). Optimizing a form of acrylic fiber. Pan which is a polymer with a chain the pyrolysis of pan precursor fiber would ideally result in en- of carbon connected to one another(Fig. 1)is hard, horny, rel- hanced performance of the resulting carbon fiber atively insoluble, and a high-melting material [1]. It has been Recent study has established that pan fibers were used on established that PAN-based carbon fiber is stronger than other a large scale in textile industry and one of the most suitable type of precursor-based carbon fiber [2]. PAN-based fibers also and widely applied for making high performance carbon fibers have been found to be the most suitable precursors for produc- [10-13]. Most PAN-based carbon fibers extensively applied in ing high performance carbon fibers(compared to pitch, rayon, last two decades were used in the composite technology [14] etc. )generally because of its higher melting point and greater They are highly desirable for high performance composites for carbon yield(>50% of the original precursor mass)[3-7]. automotive and aerospace technologies due to their enhanced Although carbon fiber can be from pitch precursor, the pro- physical and mechanical characteristics [9]. Fitzer [15] and cessing and purifying it to the fiber form is very expensive Chen and Harrison [16] believed that the optimization of and generally, they are more expensive than PAN-based fibers PAN fiber would ideally result in high performance for use 8. PAN with molecular formula [C3H3NIn can produce in aerospace application. Hence PAN-based fiber that leads bon fiber of relatively high carbon yield giving rise to to a good balance in properties can be used in structural ap cations and provide high strength [2] ponding author.Tel:+6075535592;fax:+6075581463 Year by year there will be an improvement on performance ail address: afauzi@ utm. my(A F. Ismail as well as strength and modulus of paN-based carbon fiber 0141-3910S. see front matter o 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd doi: 10. 1016/j-polymdegradstab. 2007.03.023

Review article A review of heat treatment on polyacrylonitrile fiber M.S.A. Rahaman, A.F. Ismail*, A. Mustafa Membrane Research Unit (MRU), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia Received 23 January 2007; accepted 23 March 2007 Available online 14 April 2007 Abstract Developing carbon fiber from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) based fiber is generally subjected to three processes namely stabilization, carboniza￾tion, and graphitization under controlled conditions. The PAN fiber is first stretched and simultaneously oxidized in a temperature range of 200e300 C. This treatment converts thermoplastic PAN to a non-plastic cyclic or a ladder compound. After oxidation, the fibers are carbonized at about 1000 C in inert atmosphere which is usually nitrogen. Then, in order to improve the ordering and orientation of the crystallites in the direction of the fiber axis, the fiber must be heated at about 1500e3000 C until the polymer contains 92e100%. High temperature process generally leads to higher modulus fibers which expel impurities in the chain as volatile by-products. During heating treatment, the fiber shrinks in diameter, builds the structure into a large structure and upgrades the strength by removing the initial nitrogen content of PAN precursor and the timing of nitrogen. With better-controlled condition, the strength of the fiber can achieve up to 400 GPa after this pyrolysis process. 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Polyacrylonitrile; Heat treatment; Stabilization; Carbonization; Carbon fiber 1. Introduction It has been documented that the majority of all carbon fi- bers used today are made from PAN precursor, which is a form of acrylic fiber. PAN which is a polymer with a chain of carbon connected to one another (Fig. 1) is hard, horny, rel￾atively insoluble, and a high-melting material [1]. It has been established that PAN-based carbon fiber is stronger than other type of precursor-based carbon fiber [2]. PAN-based fibers also have been found to be the most suitable precursors for produc￾ing high performance carbon fibers (compared to pitch, rayon, etc.) generally because of its higher melting point and greater carbon yield (>50% of the original precursor mass) [3e7]. Although carbon fiber can be from pitch precursor, the pro￾cessing and purifying it to the fiber form is very expensive and generally, they are more expensive than PAN-based fibers [8]. PAN with molecular formula [C3H3N]n can produce car￾bon fiber of relatively high carbon yield giving rise to a thermally stable, extremely oriented molecular structure when subjected to a low temperature treatment [9]. PAN fiber was also preferred to be the precursor because of its fast rate in pyrolysis without changing its basic structure [9]. Optimizing the pyrolysis of PAN precursor fiber would ideally result in en￾hanced performance of the resulting carbon fiber. Recent study has established that PAN fibers were used on a large scale in textile industry and one of the most suitable and widely applied for making high performance carbon fibers [10e13]. Most PAN-based carbon fibers extensively applied in last two decades were used in the composite technology [14]. They are highly desirable for high performance composites for automotive and aerospace technologies due to their enhanced physical and mechanical characteristics [9]. Fitzer [15] and Chen and Harrison [16] believed that the optimization of PAN fiber would ideally result in high performance for use in aerospace application. Hence PAN-based fiber that leads to a good balance in properties can be used in structural appli￾cations and provide high strength [2]. Year by year there will be an improvement on performance as well as strength and modulus of PAN-based carbon fiber * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ607 5535592; fax: þ607 5581463. E-mail address: afauzi@utm.my (A.F. Ismail). 0141-3910/$ - see front matter 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.03.023 Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432 www.elsevier.com/locate/polydegstab

MS-A Rahaman et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 PAN fiber c三NC三N Fig. 1. Molecular structure of polyacrylonitrile. STABIL忆zA Oxidation in air [17]. Traceski [18] stated that the total worldwide production of PAN-based carbon fiber was 19 million lbs per year for Step 2: 1989 and increased up to 26 million lbs per year. In addition CARBONIZATION the worldwide outlook for the demand of pan carbon fibers is Heat treatment in nitrogen currently amounting to a nearly S6 billion pound per year worldwide effort [ 19, 20]. So, the wide availability of pan pre- cursor had triggered the production of carbon fiber. Step 3: GRAPHITIZATION Heat treatment in argon L. Heat treatment Heat treatment is a process that converts the PAn fiber pre DATA ANALYSIS cursor to carbon fiber. Currently 90% of all commercial carbon or graphite fibers are produced by the thermal conversion of a Pan precursor, which is a form of acrylic fiber. The successful HIGH PERFORFMANCE conversion of PAn to high strength, high modulus fibers depend CARBON FIBER in part upon the understanding of the oxidative and thermal treatment. Liu et al. [21]listed the three steps for the conversion Fig. 2. PAN precursor carbon fiber conversion process. of precursor of PAN-based fiber to carbon, which are as follows. cyclization of the nitrile groups in acrylic molecule. Setnescu 1. Oxidative stabilization, which forms ladder structure to et al. [27]observed that CH2 and Cn groups disappeared com enable them to undergo processing at higher temperatures. pletely due to elimination, cyclization and aromatization re High temperature carbonization, (<1600C)to keep out tions and formed C=C, C=N and=C-H groups. Typically, noncarbon atoms and yield a turbostatic structure during the course of stabilization, the PAN-based precursor fiber iii. Further heat up to 2000C to improve the orientation of undergoes a change in colour from white through shades of yel- he basal planes and the stiffness of fibers, which is low and browns to ultimately a black stabilized fiber. The mech called graphitization anism for colouration is not fully understood. However, the appearance of black colour is believed to be due to the formation 2. Precursor stabilization of ladder ring structure [28, 291 In this process, the required temperature is the important Among the conversion processes shown in Fig. 2, an essen- factor that would affect the heating treatment of PAn fiber tial and time-consuming step in the conversion of PAn fibers Heat treatment involved in stabilization of PAn fiber is carried to high performance carbon fiber is the oxidative stabilization out usually at the region of 180-300C [24, 30]. When tem- step [7]. This can be explained by chemical reactions that are perature exceeds 180C, the molecular chains will unfold involved in this process, which are cyclization, dehydrogena- and move around. But some researchers found that heating tion, aromatization, oxidation and crosslinking which can re- temperature within 200-300C are usually used to stabilize sult in the formation of the conjugated ladder structure the fiber [7, 23, 25, 31-34]. Fitzer et al. [35] suggested that in [22, 23]. The oxidative stabilization stage is one of the most producing best performance carbon fiber, the best stabilized complicated stages, since different chemical reactions take temperature is 270 C. However, other researchers [36-381 place and the structure of the carbon fiber is set in this stage. found that heating treatment needs higher than 300C to com- Stabilization process, which is done in atmosphere can plete the stabilization. Mathur et al. [39] also proposed that change chemical structure of the fiber and cause them to become PAN fiber does not get preferred stability at 270C but needs thermally stable and so melting will not reoccur[24]. Recently, higher temperature up to 400C. It was known that PAN fiber the stabilization process is found to play an important role in with optimum stabilization condition can produce higher mod converting PAN fiber to an infusible stable ladder polymer ulus carbon fiber than unstablized fiber or than fiber which is that converts CEN bonds to C=N bonds [25]and to develop prepared at high temperature stabilization process [31]. If the crosslink between molecules of Pan [26] which tend to operate temperature is too high, the fibers can overheat and fuse or at high temperatures, with minimum volatilization of carbona- even burn. However, if the temperature is too low, the reac- ceous material. The thermal stability of the stabilized fiber is at- tions are slow and incomplete stabilization can be resulted, tributed to the formation of the ladder structure due to yielding poor carbon fiber properties

[17]. Traceski [18] stated that the total worldwide production of PAN-based carbon fiber was 19 million lbs per year for 1989 and increased up to 26 million lbs per year. In addition, the worldwide outlook for the demand of PAN carbon fibers is currently amounting to a nearly $6 billion pound per year worldwide effort [19,20]. So, the wide availability of PAN pre￾cursor had triggered the production of carbon fiber. 1.1. Heat treatment Heat treatment is a process that converts the PAN fiber pre￾cursor to carbon fiber. Currently 90% of all commercial carbon or graphite fibers are produced by the thermal conversion of a PAN precursor, which is a form of acrylic fiber. The successful conversion of PAN to high strength, high modulus fibers depend in part upon the understanding of the oxidative and thermal treatment. Liu et al. [21] listed the three steps for the conversion of precursor of PAN-based fiber to carbon, which are as follows. i. Oxidative stabilization, which forms ladder structure to enable them to undergo processing at higher temperatures. ii. High temperature carbonization, (1600 C) to keep out noncarbon atoms and yield a turbostatic structure. iii. Further heat up to 2000 C to improve the orientation of the basal planes and the stiffness of fibers, which is called graphitization. 2. Precursor stabilization Among the conversion processes shown in Fig. 2, an essen￾tial and time-consuming step in the conversion of PAN fibers to high performance carbon fiber is the oxidative stabilization step [7]. This can be explained by chemical reactions that are involved in this process, which are cyclization, dehydrogena￾tion, aromatization, oxidation and crosslinking which can re￾sult in the formation of the conjugated ladder structure [22,23]. The oxidative stabilization stage is one of the most complicated stages, since different chemical reactions take place and the structure of the carbon fiber is set in this stage. Stabilization process, which is done in atmosphere can change chemical structure of the fiber and cause them to become thermally stable and so melting will not reoccur [24]. Recently, the stabilization process is found to play an important role in converting PAN fiber to an infusible stable ladder polymer that converts C^N bonds to C]N bonds [25] and to develop crosslink between molecules of PAN [26] which tend to operate at high temperatures, with minimum volatilization of carbona￾ceous material. The thermal stability of the stabilized fiber is at￾tributed to the formation of the ladder structure due to cyclization of the nitrile groups in acrylic molecule. Setnescu et al. [27] observed that CH2 and CN groups disappeared com￾pletely due to elimination, cyclization and aromatization reac￾tions and formed C]C, C]N and ]CeH groups. Typically, during the course of stabilization, the PAN-based precursor fiber undergoes a change in colour from white through shades of yel￾low and browns to ultimately a black stabilized fiber. The mech￾anism for colouration is not fully understood. However, the appearance of black colour is believed to be due to the formation of ladder ring structure [28,29]. In this process, the required temperature is the important factor that would affect the heating treatment of PAN fiber. Heat treatment involved in stabilization of PAN fiber is carried out usually at the region of 180e300 C [24,30]. When tem￾perature exceeds 180 C, the molecular chains will unfold and move around. But some researchers found that heating temperature within 200e300 C are usually used to stabilize the fiber [7,23,25,31e34]. Fitzer et al. [35] suggested that in producing best performance carbon fiber, the best stabilized temperature is 270 C. However, other researchers [36e38] found that heating treatment needs higher than 300 C to com￾plete the stabilization. Mathur et al. [39] also proposed that PAN fiber does not get preferred stability at 270 C but needs higher temperature up to 400 C. It was known that PAN fiber with optimum stabilization condition can produce higher mod￾ulus carbon fiber than unstablized fiber or than fiber which is prepared at high temperature stabilization process [31]. If the temperature is too high, the fibers can overheat and fuse or even burn. However, if the temperature is too low, the reac￾tions are slow and incomplete stabilization can be resulted, yielding poor carbon fiber properties. Fig. 2. PAN precursor carbon fiber conversion process. Fig. 1. Molecular structure of polyacrylonitrile. 1422 M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432

M.S.A. Rahaman er al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 1423 Previously two important reactions occur during stabilize- tion process which can change the chemistry of PAn structure 40]. They are dehydrogenation and cyclization reactions as illustrated in Fig 3. Both are important to form ladder polymer structure which was thermally stable and might be able to withstand high temperature during pyrolysis process. In addi tion, stabilization process also could be present in oxidation reaction which gives an insight about diffusion of oxygen through the reacting polymer [41] Fig 4. Ladder PAN structure [26]- 2 Oxidation reaction he rings are formed. The dehydrogenation reactions have at ast two elementary steps, with oxidation in the first step The oxidation reaction during PAN-based precursor stabili- and elimination of water in the second. Studies have shown zation is the least reaction and is the step which most precur- that either the original pan polymer or cyclized ladder poly sors depend. Commercially, stabilization of PAn fiber is done mer can undergo dehydrogenation [43]. As a conclusion from in an"oxidizing medium which is typically air. The reaction Fig 3, the reactions are usually written in the form of Fig. 6 exotherm when PAN is stabilized in air is partly due to reac- Since oxygen is required for the reaction to proceed, dehydro- tion with oxygen. Although stabilization could be done in an genation does not occur in inert atmosphere. This is different inert atmosphere, a polymer back-bone containing oxygen- from the cyclization reaction. The double bond or unsaturated bearing groups that evolves in PAN ladder structure(Fig. 4) bond that formed in the reaction improves the polymers ther provides greater stability to sustain high temperature carbon- mal stability and reduces chain scission during carbonization ization treatment [42 Fitzer and Muller [43 have concluded that the activation energy and the frequency factor were greater in air than in ni- trogen(inert gas). This indicates that oxygen is an initiator for 23. Cyclization reaction the formation of activated center for cyclization because of the ncrease in the activation energy. Consequently, various struc The last reaction that would be discussed is cyclization tures of oxidized pAN that account for the presence of oxygen which is the most important reaction in the stabilization of have been proposed including those containing bridging ether PAN fiber. Cyclization is the reaction of the nitrile groups in links, those containing carbonyl groups, and those in which the precursor polymer with adjacent groups to form a stable, each nitrogen atom donates its lone pair of electron to an ladder polymer and could be described by first order kinetic oxygen(as shown in Fig. 5)5,] equation [43]. Cyclization is the most important reaction in stabilization process. The cyclization of the nitrile groups is 2. 2. Dehydrogenation process an exothermic reaction and that the evolution of gaseous prod ucts accompanies this reaction [46]. The reaction is necessary Dehydrogenation is the formation of double bonds that sta- to hold molecules in fiber together and increases the stiffness bilizes carbon chain and cyclization is the process by which [47-50]. In addition, the idea of cyclization was conceived by Cyclization CEN C=N CEN H2O Dehydrogenation Dehydrogenation Cyclization Fig. 3. Proposed chemistry of PAN stabilization 19, 40

Previously two important reactions occur during stabiliza￾tion process which can change the chemistry of PAN structure [40]. They are dehydrogenation and cyclization reactions as illustrated in Fig. 3. Both are important to form ladder polymer structure which was thermally stable and might be able to withstand high temperature during pyrolysis process. In addi￾tion, stabilization process also could be present in oxidation reaction which gives an insight about diffusion of oxygen through the reacting polymer [41]. 2.1. Oxidation reaction The oxidation reaction during PAN-based precursor stabili￾zation is the least reaction and is the step which most precur￾sors depend. Commercially, stabilization of PAN fiber is done in an ‘oxidizing’ medium which is typically air. The reaction exotherm when PAN is stabilized in air is partly due to reac￾tion with oxygen. Although stabilization could be done in an inert atmosphere, a polymer back-bone containing oxygen￾bearing groups that evolves in PAN ladder structure (Fig. 4) provides greater stability to sustain high temperature carbon￾ization treatment [42]. Fitzer and Muller [43] have concluded that the activation energy and the frequency factor were greater in air than in ni￾trogen (inert gas). This indicates that oxygen is an initiator for the formation of activated center for cyclization because of the increase in the activation energy. Consequently, various struc￾tures of oxidized PAN that account for the presence of oxygen have been proposed including those containing bridging ether links, those containing carbonyl groups, and those in which each nitrogen atom donates its lone pair of electron to an oxygen (as shown in Fig. 5) [5,44]. 2.2. Dehydrogenation process Dehydrogenation is the formation of double bonds that sta￾bilizes carbon chain and cyclization is the process by which the rings are formed. The dehydrogenation reactions have at least two elementary steps, with oxidation in the first step and elimination of water in the second. Studies have shown that either the original PAN polymer or cyclized ladder poly￾mer can undergo dehydrogenation [43]. As a conclusion from Fig. 3, the reactions are usually written in the form of Fig. 6. Since oxygen is required for the reaction to proceed, dehydro￾genation does not occur in inert atmosphere. This is different from the cyclization reaction. The double bond or unsaturated bond that formed in the reaction improves the polymer’s ther￾mal stability and reduces chain scission during carbonization [45]. 2.3. Cyclization reaction The last reaction that would be discussed is cyclization which is the most important reaction in the stabilization of PAN fiber. Cyclization is the reaction of the nitrile groups in the precursor polymer with adjacent groups to form a stable, ladder polymer and could be described by first order kinetic equation [43]. Cyclization is the most important reaction in stabilization process. The cyclization of the nitrile groups is an exothermic reaction and that the evolution of gaseous prod￾ucts accompanies this reaction [46]. The reaction is necessary to hold molecules in fiber together and increases the stiffness [47e50]. In addition, the idea of cyclization was conceived by Fig. 3. Proposed chemistry of PAN stabilization [9,40]. Fig. 4. Ladder PAN structure [26]. M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432 1423

1424 MS-A Rahaman et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 H Fig. 7. Fully aromatic cyclized structure proposed by Houtz [51] layer or ribbon structure(shown in Fig 8)consisting of three hexagons in the lateral direction and bounded by nitrogen The initiation of the cyclization reaction has been attributed such as catalyst fragments, re- sidual polymerization products, inhibitors, etc. [53](2)the chain end groups: [54](3)random initiation by hydrogen atoms a to the nitrile; 55](4) transformation of a nitrile to an azomethine [56: 5)the presence of a ketonitrile formed by hydrolysis dur- ing polymerization; [28] and(6) hydrolysis of nitriles to acid during polymerization [57]. In addition, due to their reaction cyclization reactions can proceed in either an inert or in the presence of oxygen. In other words, oxygen is not in- volved in the reaction mechanism of cyclization. 2.4. Miscellaneous types of stabilization process Although a wide variety of stabilization processes are Fig5 Proposed structures of oxidized PAN:(a)bridging ether links;(b)car- described, they have several design objectives in common nyl groups;(c)donation of lone pair electron to oxygen atom; (d) hydroxyl and carbonyl groups [44, 45]- 1. Runaway reactions from heat must be prevented. 2. Stabilization must be completed throughout the fiber. Houtz [ 51]in 1950 from his observation that PAN stabilization 3. The shrinkage must be completed throughout the fibers led to change in colouration. 4. The reactions are slow and accelerations are helpful During the stabilization process, the PAn structure un- dergoes cyclization reaction and converts the triple bond struc- When the production volume increased specific methods of ture (e.g. CEN) to double bond structure (e.g. C=N), stabilizing the fiber were patented. The patents deal with three resulting in a six-membered cyclic pyridine ring proposed major areas: batch process, continuous process, and accelera- by Houtz [51] as illustrated in Fig. 7 and changes the aliphatic tion of stabilization reactions. This section provides general to cyclic structure prior to the formation of ladder polymer. example from each of these areas that illustrates common de- Referring to this figure(Fig. 7), cyclization reactions can pro- sign objectives described above ceed in either an inert atmosphere or in the presence of oxy- gen. In other words, oxygen is not involved in the reaction 2.4.1. Batch process c batch processes are shown in Figs.9-1 mechanism of cyclization. When the temperature rises up to Three examples 600C, the cyclized structure undergoes dehydrogenation The first process blows hot air through a spool precursor and links up in lateral direction, producing a graphite-like loosely wound on a porous core. The air permits heat removal 义人人义 Fig. 6. The dehydrogenation reaction during stabilization process: (a) PAN polymer; (b) cyclized PAN

Houtz [51] in 1950 from his observation that PAN stabilization led to change in colouration. During the stabilization process, the PAN structure un￾dergoes cyclization reaction and converts the triple bond struc￾ture (e.g. C^N) to double bond structure (e.g. C]N), resulting in a six-membered cyclic pyridine ring proposed by Houtz [51] as illustrated in Fig. 7 and changes the aliphatic to cyclic structure prior to the formation of ladder polymer. Referring to this figure (Fig. 7), cyclization reactions can pro￾ceed in either an inert atmosphere or in the presence of oxy￾gen. In other words, oxygen is not involved in the reaction mechanism of cyclization. When the temperature rises up to 600 C, the cyclized structure undergoes dehydrogenation and links up in lateral direction, producing a graphite-like layer or ribbon structure (shown in Fig. 8) consisting of three hexagons in the lateral direction and bounded by nitrogen atom [52]. The initiation of the cyclization reaction has been attributed to several sources: (1) impurities such as catalyst fragments, re￾sidual polymerization products, inhibitors, etc.[53](2) the chain end groups; [54] (3) random initiation by hydrogen atoms a to the nitrile; [55] (4) transformation of a nitrile to an azomethine; [56];(5) the presence of a ketonitrile formed by hydrolysis dur￾ing polymerization; [28] and (6) hydrolysis of nitriles to acids during polymerization [57]. In addition, due to their reaction, cyclization reactions can proceed in either an inert atmosphere or in the presence of oxygen. In other words, oxygen is not in￾volved in the reaction mechanism of cyclization. 2.4. Miscellaneous types of stabilization process Although a wide variety of stabilization processes are described, they have several design objectives in common. 1. Runaway reactions from heat must be prevented. 2. Stabilization must be completed throughout the fiber. 3. The shrinkage must be completed throughout the fibers. 4. The reactions are slow and accelerations are helpful. When the production volume increased specific methods of stabilizing the fiber were patented. The patents deal with three major areas: batch process, continuous process, and accelera￾tion of stabilization reactions. This section provides general example from each of these areas that illustrates common de￾sign objectives described above. 2.4.1. Batch process Three examples of batch processes are shown in Figs. 9e11. The first process blows hot air through a spool precursor loosely wound on a porous core. The air permits heat removal Fig. 5. Proposed structures of oxidized PAN: (a) bridging ether links; (b) car￾bonyl groups; (c) donation of lone pair electron to oxygen atom; (d) hydroxyl and carbonyl groups [44,45]. Fig. 6. The dehydrogenation reaction during stabilization process: (a) PAN polymer; (b) cyclized PAN. Fig. 7. Fully aromatic cyclized structure proposed by Houtz [51]. 1424 M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432

M.S.A. Rahaman er al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 ∴∵:∷∴∷ ·布·· 26HHIIL LH 15 :: ;…∵∷ 15 wIll ::∵∴…∷∷ Fig. 10. Moving rack process by atomic energy authority [59] …∷∵"∷ contact of the yarn with the rollers. And the shrinkage is con- trolled by adjusting the tension applied to the rack. The final Fig 8 Schematic of graphite ribbon [52] process in Fig. Il is a step toward continuous process and probably is more expensive to operate than the two processes ( Figs. 9 and 10) described before. The initial stages of stabili- and provides a source of oxygen. Shrinkage is controlled by zation are performed continuously in a multiphase oven with the fiber itself as it is wound and spool. However, since the the fiber restrained from shrinkage by the oven roller. The air flow is not uniform and the fibers are in contact with one more stable final stages are completed in batch oven where another, a batch process with a method to move the yarn the yarn is wrapped into lo and improve the uniformity was developed as in Fig. 10 limited in its ability to produce since the yarn in contact The ends are tied and the rollers turned to minimize the with the support will differ from that surrounded by air. an he tension is not uniform in the skein l49 2. 4.2. Continuous process The continuous processes for stabilizing PAN are all based on the idea of pulling tows through heated boxes. The first sketch in Fig. 12 illustrates the basic heated box with multiple passes. The tow may be oriented horizontally or vertically in he oven and the air in the oven is circulated to control heat and mass tra answeR It also patented by Toho Company [61], where the fiber passes through the oven, turns on a roller, and re-enters the oven. In addition, the heat is controlled by the yam moving outside the hot oven every few minutes. Meanwhile Cour taulds(Fig. 13) has patented a stabilization oven which con- tains a number of different temperature zones in a single oven [62]. The yarn is wound on long rollers which pass through a series of buffled oven zones. This concept of multi- ple zones with a stage temperature is probably used in all com- mercial processes. An interesting continuous process is shown Fig. 9. Batch stabilization of polyacrylonitrile yarn on the tube [581 by the fluidized bed process(Fig. 14)[63]. Here the fibers are

and provides a source of oxygen. Shrinkage is controlled by the fiber itself as it is wound and spool. However, since the air flow is not uniform and the fibers are in contact with one another, a batch process with a method to move the yarn and improve the uniformity was developed as in Fig. 10. The ends are tied and the rollers turned to minimize the contact of the yarn with the rollers. And the shrinkage is con￾trolled by adjusting the tension applied to the rack. The final process in Fig. 11 is a step toward continuous process and probably is more expensive to operate than the two processes (Figs. 9 and 10) described before. The initial stages of stabili￾zation are performed continuously in a multiphase oven with the fiber restrained from shrinkage by the oven roller. The more stable final stages are completed in batch oven where the yarn is wrapped into loose skeins. However, the process is limited in its ability to produce since the yarn in contact with the support will differ from that surrounded by air, and the tension is not uniform in the skein. 2.4.2. Continuous process The continuous processes for stabilizing PAN are all based on the idea of pulling tows through heated boxes. The first sketch in Fig. 12 illustrates the basic heated box with multiple passes. The tow may be oriented horizontally or vertically in the oven and the air in the oven is circulated to control heat and mass transfers. It also patented by Toho Company [61], where the fiber passes through the oven, turns on a roller, and re-enters the oven. In addition, the heat is controlled by the yarn moving outside the hot oven every few minutes. Meanwhile Cour￾taulds (Fig. 13) has patented a stabilization oven which con￾tains a number of different temperature zones in a single oven [62]. The yarn is wound on long rollers which pass through a series of buffled oven zones. This concept of multi￾ple zones with a stage temperature is probably used in all com￾mercial processes. An interesting continuous process is shown by the fluidized bed process (Fig. 14) [63]. Here the fibers are Fig. 8. Schematic of graphite ribbon [52]. Fig. 9. Batch stabilization of polyacrylonitrile yarn on the tube [58]. Fig. 10. Moving rack process by atomic energy authority [59]. M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432 1425

MS-A Rahaman et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 STRETCHING OXIDATIO SKEINER in air at230°c CARBONIZATION GRAPHITIZATION in air at230°cto1000° C in nitrogen to2500° c in argon Fig. 11. Semi-batch production of carbon fibers from PAN fiber [60] passed through a bed of fluidized hollow balls, significantly temperature up to 800-3000C, typically to a 95% carbor al roving the heat and mass transfer rates. This design could content [31]. Carbonization at 1000C will produce carbon fi- allow the use of higher temperatures and still avoid runaway ber in low modulus type and intermediate modulus or type reaction and should allow more rapid dehydrogenation and carbon fiber will produce at up to 1500C [13, 16, 31, 66]. Trin- oxidation quecoste and group [ 67], also observed that heating process around 1000C produced high tensile strength fiber, and for 2.43. Accelerator process high modulus fiber, higher temperature treatment is needed. Thus. it would change the pan structure as illustrated actions. An example of this is the introduction of acidic groups Fig. 15 [68] and Fig. 16(691 like itaconic acids which was claimed by the Us patent A few researchers had put in effort to understand the car- 4,079, 122[64]. This monomer contains two acid groups which bonization step especially in continuous model [21].However, provide two initiation sites, leaving fewer uncyclized links for whatever be the technique, the process only occurs in inert at- later carbonization. Besides, the US patent 4,397, 831 (611 mosphere condition and usually involves heating the polymer claimed that by passing the fibers through a bath which con- in a nitrogen rich environment(Fig. 17)[70]. In addition, ten- tains a water-soluble zinc compound and then washes the fiber sile and modulus have shown significant increase with carbon- with the water could result in Lewis acid served to initiate the ization treatment under N2 [71]. But some researchers proved cyclization reaction. Other than that, an example for accelera- that argon also can act as inert gas in carbonization process tor process by modifying the stabilization gas is given by the [72-76]. Whereas, carbonizing the stabilized PAN fiber in US patent 3, 954, 947(65]. An atmosphere of oxygen and hy- an atmosphere of HCI vapors could enhance the carbon hiber drogen chloride is used, resulting in shorter times for complete yield, subsequently decreasing the amount of hydrogen cya- stabilization nide(HCn) by eliminating nitrogen as ammonia. However, 3. Carbonization Carbonization was an aromatic growth and polymerization in which the fiber would undergo heating process at a high Fig. 13. Courtaulds furnace for oxidation, carbonization and graphitization Fig. 12. Continuous stabilization process with roller outside the oven[61]- [62

passed through a bed of fluidized hollow balls, significantly improving the heat and mass transfer rates. This design could allow the use of higher temperatures and still avoid runaway reaction and should allow more rapid dehydrogenation and oxidation. 2.4.3. Accelerator process Most accelerators serve as initiators for the cyclization re￾actions. An example of this is the introduction of acidic groups like itaconic acids which was claimed by the US patent 4,079,122 [64]. This monomer contains two acid groups which provide two initiation sites, leaving fewer uncyclized links for later carbonization. Besides, the US patent 4,397,831 [61] claimed that by passing the fibers through a bath which con￾tains a water-soluble zinc compound and then washes the fiber with the water, could result in Lewis acid served to initiate the cyclization reaction. Other than that, an example for accelera￾tor process by modifying the stabilization gas is given by the US patent 3,954,947 [65]. An atmosphere of oxygen and hy￾drogen chloride is used, resulting in shorter times for complete stabilization. 3. Carbonization Carbonization was an aromatic growth and polymerization, in which the fiber would undergo heating process at a high temperature up to 800e3000 C, typically to a 95% carbon content [31]. Carbonization at 1000 C will produce carbon fi- ber in low modulus type and intermediate modulus or type II carbon fiber will produce at up to 1500 C [13,16,31,66]. Trin￾quecoste and group [67], also observed that heating process around 1000 C produced high tensile strength fiber, and for high modulus fiber, higher temperature treatment is needed. Thus, it would change the PAN structure as illustrated Fig. 15 [68] and Fig. 16 [69]. A few researchers had put in effort to understand the car￾bonization step especially in continuous model [21]. However, whatever be the technique, the process only occurs in inert at￾mosphere condition and usually involves heating the polymer in a nitrogen rich environment (Fig. 17) [70]. In addition, ten￾sile and modulus have shown significant increase with carbon￾ization treatment under N2 [71]. But some researchers proved that argon also can act as inert gas in carbonization process [72e76]. Whereas, carbonizing the stabilized PAN fiber in an atmosphere of HCl vapors could enhance the carbon fiber yield, subsequently decreasing the amount of hydrogen cya￾nide (HCN) by eliminating nitrogen as ammonia. However, Fig. 11. Semi-batch production of carbon fibers from PAN fiber [60]. Fig. 12. Continuous stabilization process with roller outside the oven [61]. Fig. 13. Courtaulds furnace for oxidation, carbonization and graphitization [62]. 1426 M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432

M.S.A. Rahaman er al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 1427 DE Ph stated that PAN fiber that stabilized at temperature fewer than 250C could not withstand at high heating rate beyond 1700C and produced a brittle fiber [38]. Hence, the optimum carbonization was required in order to form better properties of final carbon fiber 3. 1. Stretching during pyrolysis Stretching during pyrolysis process helps to develop high tensile modulus and improves fiber strength upon subsequent heat treatment. Some study indicated that the strength of the fiber had been restored and could stretching [79]. Tsai and Lin [80] and Edie [33] also stated that with the requirement of the stretching in this step, ade- quate modulus and strength of carbon fiber could be roduced Other than that stretching could attenuate amount of shrink age, which was caused by high heating rate [70]. Therefore, if no stretching was applied in the early stage of pyrolysis, then the length shrinkage and the loss of preferred orientation and hence deteriorate the mechanical properties of Fig. 14. Rolls-Royce equipment for stabilization of PAn fiber in a fluidized 4. Graphitization the consumption of argon and HCl was very costly and HCl For further improvement on the performance, carbonized fi could make the equipment corrosive [76, 77 ber must undergo graphitization process. Graphitization is the In carbonization process, there are two steps wherein, the transformation of carbon structure into graphite structure by first step involves in carbonization process and is the thermal heat treatment as well as thermal decomposition at high tem- pyrolysis up to 600C. Low heating rate as low as 5C/min perature processing. Actually, the process of production of was used which could lower the mass transfer because of in- both carbon fiber and graphite fiber was essentially the same ability of the structure [35]. In the second stage, high heating either in carbonization or in graphitization. During graphitiza- rate for high final temperature is needed tion the temperature does not only rise until 1600C, but ex Unlike the first stage, the high heating rate had been used in ceeds up to 3000C [38, 77, 81]. In other words, graphitization the second stage because of lesser possibility of damage to the process was a carbonization process at high heating tempera- structure due to stability of PAN structure [38]. Thus, the pro- ture. At this stage, up to 99%o of pan polymer was converted cess requires only less than 10 min for the second stage[78]. to carbon structure. Carbon fiber which was produced in this However, previous study claimed that too high heating rate condition was in very high modulus fiber or can be classified could cause higher amount of shrinkage [16, 35]. Some studies as type I carbon fiber. 400·600°c 600·1300°c Fig. 15. Structure changes for PAN precursor during carbonization [68]-

the consumption of argon and HCl was very costly and HCl could make the equipment corrosive [76,77]. In carbonization process, there are two steps wherein, the first step involves in carbonization process and is the thermal pyrolysis up to 600 C. Low heating rate as low as 5 C/min was used which could lower the mass transfer because of in￾ability of the structure [35]. In the second stage, high heating rate for high final temperature is needed. Unlike the first stage, the high heating rate had been used in the second stage because of lesser possibility of damage to the structure due to stability of PAN structure [38]. Thus, the pro￾cess requires only less than 10 min for the second stage [78]. However, previous study claimed that too high heating rate could cause higher amount of shrinkage [16,35]. Some studies stated that PAN fiber that stabilized at temperature fewer than 250 C could not withstand at high heating rate beyond 1700 C and produced a brittle fiber [38]. Hence, the optimum carbonization was required in order to form better properties of final carbon fiber. 3.1. Stretching during pyrolysis Stretching during pyrolysis process helps to develop high tensile modulus and improves fiber strength upon subsequent heat treatment. Some study indicated that the strength of the fiber had been restored and could be improved when the high temperatures were accompanied by reasonable degree of stretching [79]. Tsai and Lin [80] and Edie [33] also stated that with the requirement of the stretching in this step, ade￾quate modulus and strength of carbon fiber could be produced. Other than that stretching could attenuate amount of shrink￾age, which was caused by high heating rate [70]. Therefore, if no stretching was applied in the early stage of pyrolysis, then the length shrinkage and the loss of preferred orientation occur and hence deteriorate the mechanical properties of carbon fiber [80]. 4. Graphitization For further improvement on the performance, carbonized fi- ber must undergo graphitization process. Graphitization is the transformation of carbon structure into graphite structure by heat treatment as well as thermal decomposition at high tem￾perature processing. Actually, the process of production of both carbon fiber and graphite fiber was essentially the same either in carbonization or in graphitization. During graphitiza￾tion the temperature does not only rise until 1600 C, but ex￾ceeds up to 3000 C [38,77,81]. In other words, graphitization process was a carbonization process at high heating tempera￾ture. At this stage, up to 99% of PAN polymer was converted to carbon structure. Carbon fiber which was produced in this condition was in very high modulus fiber or can be classified as type I carbon fiber. Fig. 14. Rolls-Royce equipment for stabilization of PAN fiber in a fluidized bed [63]. Fig. 15. Structure changes for PAN precursor during carbonization [68]. M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432 1427

MS_A Rahaman et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92(2007)1421-1432 T=500°c T=800°c N-6 N-x Fig. 16. Sketch of the structural and chemical transformation of the stabilized pan precursor along with increasing carbonization temperature. N-5, cetopyridir N-6 pyridine-like N: N-X, pyridine-N-oxide: N-Q, graphitic-like N[] 5. Functionality gaseous been stated as the reason for the formation of ammonia This could be either by the formation of ammonia from active Generally, carbonized fiber can be found when the temper- chain ends, or by the end-to-end joining of two ladder struc- ature reaches 1200C and above in inert atmosphere [76]. ture(ig. 20A). While, the mechanisms for evolution of hy Through the heating process, the fiber could expel impurities drogen cyanide by the same author are shown in Fig. 20A, B as volatile by-products such as methane (CH4), hydrogen Meanwhile the formation of n, has been found to start (H2), hydrogen cyanide(HCN), water(H2O), CO2, NH3 and early at 720C [68] and more nitrogen was eliminated from various gases (25,33, 35, 82]. Among that gases, HCN, NH3 the bulk than from the surface during this heating process and CO are the toxic compounds that evolved during pyrolysis [69]. Evolution of nitrogen and hydrogen was explained by [83]. But, HCN and NH3 are the major toxic gases that Watt[86] with the scheme in Fig. 21. This results in nitrogen evolved from decomposition of pan. Data pertaining to evo- atoms substituted in the hexagonal lattice of aromatized car- lution of gases during the carbonization process, from Donnet bon, and explains the presence of large amounts of nitrogen and Bahl [84, are shown in Fig. 18 in the carbonized fiber. Graphitization at higher temperatures The other factor that promoted excessively volatile compo- reduces the concentration of residual nitrogen to very small nent was high stabilization temperature. High stabilization levels. An alternate scheme for dehydrogenation and denitro- temperature promotes over absorption of oxygen in stabilized genation has been proposed by Zhu et al. [68] and is shown fiber and might form excessive -C=O bonds. Usually, the ox- in Fig. 15. In addition, there is also elimination of CH4, CO ygen in these bonds escapes as water vapor [25]. It is known and Co that occurs at temperature higher than 800C [87] that the decrease of oxygen as water vapor is due to evolution As a result, the gases were removed until the fiber contains of H2O in the early stages of carbonization in the range be- up to 50% carbon content and above [9, 88,89]. Sometimes, tween 300-500C. The evolution of H2O results from the when the temperature increased up to 1300C, the carbonized crosslinking condensation reactions between two monomer PAN fiber could achieve 96% carbon content 31]. The in- units of the adjacent ladder polymeric molecular chains w crease in the carbon would is illustrated in Fig. 19[85]. When the temperature increased and oxygen content [25,31, 69]. Table I shows the percentage up to 800C, hydrogen cyanide and ammonia were the side of nitrogen and hydrogen which was released from the fiber gases which also evolved and released with water [68]. Watt and the increase of carbon content when the temperature rises [86] stated that reaction involving chain termination have The release of the gases would result in loss in the fiber weight ZZZZZ C- Carbon fber Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of the apparatus used for carbonization [70]

5. Functionality gaseous Generally, carbonized fiber can be found when the temper￾ature reaches 1200 C and above in inert atmosphere [76]. Through the heating process, the fiber could expel impurities as volatile by-products such as methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), water (H2O), CO2, NH3 and various gases [25,33,35,82]. Among that gases, HCN, NH3 and CO are the toxic compounds that evolved during pyrolysis [83]. But, HCN and NH3 are the major toxic gases that evolved from decomposition of PAN. Data pertaining to evo￾lution of gases during the carbonization process, from Donnet and Bahl [84], are shown in Fig. 18. The other factor that promoted excessively volatile compo￾nent was high stabilization temperature. High stabilization temperature promotes over absorption of oxygen in stabilized fiber and might form excessive eC]O bonds. Usually, the ox￾ygen in these bonds escapes as water vapor [25]. It is known that the decrease of oxygen as water vapor is due to evolution of H2O in the early stages of carbonization in the range be￾tween 300e500 C. The evolution of H2O results from the crosslinking condensation reactions between two monomer units of the adjacent ladder polymeric molecular chains which is illustrated in Fig. 19 [85]. When the temperature increased up to 800 C, hydrogen cyanide and ammonia were the side gases which also evolved and released with water [68]. Watt [86] stated that reaction involving chain termination have been stated as the reason for the formation of ammonia. This could be either by the formation of ammonia from active chain ends, or by the end-to-end joining of two ladder struc￾ture (Fig. 20A). While, the mechanisms for evolution of hy￾drogen cyanide by the same author are shown in Fig. 20A,B. Meanwhile, the formation of N2 has been found to start early at 720 C [68] and more nitrogen was eliminated from the bulk than from the surface during this heating process [69]. Evolution of nitrogen and hydrogen was explained by Watt [86] with the scheme in Fig. 21. This results in nitrogen atoms substituted in the hexagonal lattice of aromatized car￾bon, and explains the presence of large amounts of nitrogen in the carbonized fiber. Graphitization at higher temperatures reduces the concentration of residual nitrogen to very small levels. An alternate scheme for dehydrogenation and denitro￾genation has been proposed by Zhu et al. [68] and is shown in Fig. 15. In addition, there is also elimination of CH4, CO2 and CO that occurs at temperature higher than 800 C [87]. As a result, the gases were removed until the fiber contains up to 50% carbon content and above [9,88,89]. Sometimes, when the temperature increased up to 1300 C, the carbonized PAN fiber could achieve 96% carbon content [31]. The in￾crease in the carbon would decrease the nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen content [25,31,69]. Table 1 shows the percentage of nitrogen and hydrogen which was released from the fiber and the increase of carbon content when the temperature rises. The release of the gases would result in loss in the fiber weight Fig. 16. Sketch of the structural and chemical transformation of the stabilized PAN precursor along with increasing carbonization temperature. N-5, cetopyridine; N-6, pyridine-like N; N-X, pyridine-N-oxide; N-Q, graphitic-like N [69]. Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of the apparatus used for carbonization [70]. 1428 M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432

M.S.A. Rahaman er al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007)1421-1432 Afer ladder formation 20 E品>u e, HT°c) Fig. 18. Evolution of noncarbon elements from PAN fiber during carbonization within 55-60 wt%, and likely generate pores [33]. Some stud ies divided the decrease in the weight into two conditions, for Fig. 20 (A)Elimination of NH, and HCN at low temperatures;(B)high-tem- about 32% weight loss in the range of 350-800C and 13% perature elimination of HCN [86] loss within 900-1000C [90]. However, no weight loss was observed beyond 1900C, and the fiber contains only carbon 91] and performance of carbon fiber. Mittal et al. [38] observed that generally when the diameter decreased, the density would Much of the research work has been done either to improve be increased. In general, reducing the PAN fiber diameter and mechanical properties or to decrease the manufacturing cost of carbon fiber [4, 35,92]. The manufacturing of carbon fiber is increasing fiber density could make the fiber denser and hence not an easy task due to their strict procedure. The fiber also proved the performance of carbon fiber. The improvement tends to brittle without proper control on optimization process. heat treatment Therefore, a comprehensive study should be done to find the optimum condition for the production of carbon fiber with xcellent performance that used in advanced materials and 6.1. Infrared (IR)characteristics becoming worldwide application Infrared(IR)spectra can be used to analyze the chemical 6. Effect of heating treatment on PAN-based structure that exists in the fiber. According to IR analyzes carbon fiber properties PAN fiber showed prominent peaks at 2940 cm-(CH stretch), 2240 cm(C=N stretch) and 1452 cm(-CH2 The characteristics of PAN-based carbon fiber could be bend) and for SAF with 1% IA and 6% MA, the carbonyl neasured through infrared spectra. The infrared stretch of comonomer units appeared at 1730 cm[23] would identify whether the PAn fiber was stabilized Conley and Beron [93 stated that two dominant peak bonized or not. Sometimes the characteristic was measured by which are at 2940 cm- and 2240 cm- start decreasing at physical properties as well as the diameter and the density of 180C due to the formation of cyclization reaction. However, the fiber. There was a relationship between diameter, density Colemen and coworkers [94-99] suggested that the H Fig. 19. The crosslinking condensation reactions between two monomer units of the adjacent ladder polymeric chains [85]

within 55e60 wt%, and likely generate pores [33]. Some stud￾ies divided the decrease in the weight into two conditions, for about 32% weight loss in the range of 350e800 C and 13% loss within 900e1000 C [90]. However, no weight loss was observed beyond 1900 C, and the fiber contains only carbon [91]. Much of the research work has been done either to improve mechanical properties or to decrease the manufacturing cost of carbon fiber [4,35,92]. The manufacturing of carbon fiber is not an easy task due to their strict procedure. The fiber also tends to brittle without proper control on optimization process. Therefore, a comprehensive study should be done to find the optimum condition for the production of carbon fiber with excellent performance that used in advanced materials and becoming worldwide application. 6. Effect of heating treatment on PAN-based carbon fiber properties The characteristics of PAN-based carbon fiber could be measured through infrared spectra. The infrared spectrum would identify whether the PAN fiber was stabilized and car￾bonized or not. Sometimes the characteristic was measured by physical properties as well as the diameter and the density of the fiber. There was a relationship between diameter, density and performance of carbon fiber. Mittal et al. [38] observed that generally when the diameter decreased, the density would be increased. In general, reducing the PAN fiber diameter and increasing fiber density could make the fiber denser and hence improved the performance of carbon fiber. The improvement could be done by introducing proper treatment especially heat treatment. 6.1. Infrared (IR) characteristics Infrared (IR) spectra can be used to analyze the chemical structure that exists in the fiber. According to IR analyzes, PAN fiber showed prominent peaks at 2940 cm1 (eCH stretch), 2240 cm1 (C^N stretch) and 1452 cm1 (eCH2 bend) and for SAF with 1% IA and 6% MA, the carbonyl stretch of comonomer units appeared at 1730 cm1 [23]. Conley and Beron [93] stated that two dominant peaks, which are at 2940 cm1 and 2240 cm1 start decreasing at 180 C due to the formation of cyclization reaction. However, Colemen and coworkers [94e99] suggested that the Fig. 18. Evolution of noncarbon elements from PAN fiber during carbonization [84]. Fig. 19. The crosslinking condensation reactions between two monomer units of the adjacent ladder polymeric chains [85]. Fig. 20. (A) Elimination of NH3 and HCN at low temperatures; (B) high-tem￾perature elimination of HCN [86]. M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432 1429

30 总巳总恩总 忠总 Rc不 disappearance of 2240 cm band for the nitrile began as early and produced small fiber diameter. Sometimes a diameter s 160C under vacuum. Setnescu et al. [27] observed, with ten times lower than human hair could be produced through pyrolysis process, that two peaks almost completely [16]. The significant reduction in diameter has been observed disappeared and new peaks appeared around 800 cm and within the carbonization temperature(below 1000C)[38] 1600 cm. The change in peaks are due to the formation of Similar trend of the reduction of fiber diameter has been found C=C, C=N and =C-H and results in the formation of car- by Liu et al. [21]. In other words, the diameter diminished bon fiber structure throughout the carbonization treatment 6.2. Diameter 6.3. Density Large diameter is one of the limitations of fiber strength. As mentioned before, to give uniformity in heat treatment, fibers Various studies indicated that a significant change in the fi- must have a small diameter. Chen and Harrison [161, stated ber density occurred below carbonization temperature that small diameter can reduce any gradient temperature [31, 81, 100]. Within the carbonization temperature (300- across the fiber to form uniformity of heat treatment 1200C), the changes in the density of the fibers take place Commercial PAN fiber like Dralon T (DT)and Special up to 800"C [38]. Sometimes, it could rapidly change up to Acrylic Fiber (SAF) have diameter in the range of 8-20 um 1000C 31 The density could be changed due to the com- [23]. As stated before, plasticizer is applied in post-spinning of carbonization. It is also due to the presence of the noncar- modification to reduce fiber diameter prior to heat treatment. When heat treatment has been applied as well as the rise in bon elements in the fiber and the ladder polymer structures in- the temperature, the diameter of the fiber would shrink again terconnecting with one another [100] However, the density increase was followed by a sharp drop at 1000C which is due to the conversion of open pores to Table I closed pores [31]. As a consequence, the air would be trapped Chemical composition of some pyrolyzed PAN samples found by elemental inside the fibers and hence results in low density which could analysis[27] limit the tensile strength of the final carbon fiber [25]. How- Pyrolysis temperature (C) Element content ever, Ozbek and Isaac [79)and Sauder et al. [101] observed Carbon(%) Nitrogen(%6)Hydrogen(So) that heating temperature (HTT), which increases up to Initial 5.47 3000C, can eliminate the effect of open and closed pores 68 .51 This is because, in this region high heating rate and high tem- 7546 6.28 perature were used which made the vibrations of molecules

disappearance of 2240 cm1 band for the nitrile began as early as 160 C under vacuum. Setnescu et al. [27] observed, through pyrolysis process, that two peaks almost completely disappeared and new peaks appeared around 800 cm1 and 1600 cm1 . The change in peaks are due to the formation of C]C, C]N and ]CeH and results in the formation of car￾bon fiber structure. 6.2. Diameter Large diameter is one of the limitations of fiber strength. As mentioned before, to give uniformity in heat treatment, fibers must have a small diameter. Chen and Harrison [16], stated that small diameter can reduce any gradient temperature across the fiber to form uniformity of heat treatment. Commercial PAN fiber like Dralon T (DT) and Special Acrylic Fiber (SAF) have diameter in the range of 8e20 mm [23]. As stated before, plasticizer is applied in post-spinning modification to reduce fiber diameter prior to heat treatment. When heat treatment has been applied as well as the rise in the temperature, the diameter of the fiber would shrink again and produced small fiber diameter. Sometimes a diameter with ten times lower than human hair could be produced [16]. The significant reduction in diameter has been observed within the carbonization temperature (below 1000 C) [38]. Similar trend of the reduction of fiber diameter has been found by Liu et al. [21]. In other words, the diameter diminished throughout the carbonization treatment. 6.3. Density Various studies indicated that a significant change in the fi- ber density occurred below carbonization temperature [31,81,100]. Within the carbonization temperature (300e 1200 C), the changes in the density of the fibers take place up to 800 C [38]. Sometimes, it could rapidly change up to 1000 C [31]. The density could be changed due to the com￾paction of the structure taking place during the early stages of carbonization. It is also due to the presence of the noncar￾bon elements in the fiber and the ladder polymer structures in￾terconnecting with one another [100]. However, the density increase was followed by a sharp drop at 1000 C which is due to the conversion of open pores to closed pores [31]. As a consequence, the air would be trapped inside the fibers and hence results in low density which could limit the tensile strength of the final carbon fiber [25]. How￾ever, Ozbek and Isaac [79] and Sauder et al. [101] observed that heating temperature (HTT), which increases up to 3000 C, can eliminate the effect of open and closed pores. This is because, in this region high heating rate and high tem￾perature were used which made the vibrations of molecules Fig. 21. Elimination of N2 and H2 at high temperature [86]. Table 1 Chemical composition of some pyrolyzed PAN samples found by elemental analysis [27] Pyrolysis temperature (C) Element content Carbon (%) Nitrogen (%) Hydrogen (%) Initial 66.33 26.00 5.47 600 68.51 11.93 3.69 900 75.46 6.28 1.46 1430 M.S.A. Rahaman et al. / Polymer Degradation and Stability 92 (2007) 1421e1432