《计算机网络》课程教学资源（学习资料）Understanding mobile handheld device use and adoption

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TWO BROAD factors affecting the implementation and acceptance of wireledd phones emerged: Interface characteristics and network capabilities wireless devices and related applications [5], there However, rather than merely instantiating existing a clear need to comprehend how and why theories in a new context, which could potentially individuals (potential m-commerce consumers) ignore unique issues associated with mobile devices, adopt such devices we take an approach grounded in practice and in the Here, we describe the results of an ongoing points-of-view of actual users. Based on the study, we offer a framework providing Study Conducted in: A large rural public university setting in the U.S an integrative view of the key Participating Individuals Group #l consisted of 5(out of D) officers of a large student club in the issues related to mobile device university(the"MIS Club"). All members were from the U.S adoption p *2 consisted of 5 members all of whom were exchange students visiting We believe the framework, as Total 2I participants) from a Northern European country(Norway) Group #3 consisted of 5 memt f them being from the Asian-Pacific represented in the figure on the region(3 from Thailand, I from China, and I from S Korea) page, will not only sensitiz rs, who were also team members for an e- practice-oriented readers to per- e term project All members were from the U.S tinent factors but also provide Ghe up s Sb s able s were ofa the e sudent dub in the universiry researchers with a map that can lection involving Groups 4 and 5 was initiated at the conclusion help motivate empirical studies roups 1, 2, and 3) on this topic. Technology, service, The framework is struct featuree that allowed voice communication, and well as use of other an I-P-O(Input-Process- Output) "90-minute ri ning snss se ices ice featur tAe hessing text-messaging. model, and consists of: Inputs uch as User characteristics. Mes- Data Collection and x )interviews with participants each week all interviews sage/task characteristics, Technol- d an tive stance during the study ogy characteristics, Modality of res recommended in the Mobility, and the Surrounding category of mobile technology use, tegories were linked to the coreonie: /text; Process, consisting of o Open coding, wherein transcripts are read and important concepts o Arial coding, wherein concepts were organized into meaningful categories. two interacting use subp Processes of Exploration and Experiment tion, and Assessment of Ex and Output, logical exploratory research project(see outcome of the use process, specifically, the actual the the table here for details about Adoption Decision/Behaviors. idy. the study) designed to unea the key factors affecting the use Inputs: Factors Influencing Use and adoption of handheld hybrid mobile devices Individual Characteristics. Various factors useful to mention initially that well-established per- culture were identified as important determinants spectives exist, such as the Technology Acceptance influencing the implementation and acceptance of Model and Diffusion of Innovation framework, wireless handheld phones; three of the most promi which offer factors such as "ease of use and useful- nent follow ness,""relative advantage, " "compatibility, com- The age of the potential adopter, which often can plexity, "" communicability, and"triabilityB3] that predict whether or not an individual is likely to use of technologies(including, perhaps, mobile devices). or stage in lie ogy, especially its data features. Age, in very general terms, help explain seemed to influence the manner In 36 December 2003/Vol 46, No 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM

36 December 2003/Vol. 46, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM wireless devices and related applications [5], there is a clear need to comprehend how and why individuals (potential m-commerce consumers) adopt such devices. Here, we describe the results of an ongoing exploratory research project (see the table here for details about the study) designed to unearth the key factors affecting the use and adoption of handheld hybrid mobile devices (devices offering both voice and data features). It is useful to mention initially that well-established perspectives exist, such as the Technology Acceptance Model and Diffusion of Innovation framework, which offer factors such as “ease of use and usefulness,” “relative advantage,” “compatibility,” “complexity,” “communicability,” and “triability” [3] that can, in very general terms, help explain the adoption of technologies (including, perhaps, mobile devices). However, rather than merely instantiating existing theories in a new context, which could potentially ignore unique issues associated with mobile devices, we take an approach grounded in practice and in the points-of-view of actual users. Based on the study, we offer a framework providing an integrative view of the key issues related to mobile device use and adoption by individuals. We believe the framework, as represented in the figure on the next page, will not only sensitize practice-oriented readers to pertinent factors but also provide researchers with a map that can help motivate empirical studies on this topic. The framework is structured as an I-P-O (Input-Process-Output) model, and consists of: Inputs such as User characteristics, Message/task characteristics, Technology characteristics, Modality of Mobility, and the Surrounding Context; Process, consisting of two interacting use subprocesses of Exploration and Experimentation, and Assessment of Experience; and Output, referring to the outcome of the use process, specifically, the actual Adoption Decision/Behaviors. Inputs: Factors Influencing Use Individual Characteristics. Various factors such as demographics, technology-related skills, and culture were identified as important determinants influencing the implementation and acceptance of wireless handheld phones; three of the most prominent follow. The age of the potential adopter, which often can predict whether or not an individual is likely to use mobile technology, especially its data features. Age, or stage in life, seemed to influence the manner in TWO BROAD factors affecting the implementation and acceptance of wireless phones emerged: Interface characteristics and network capabilities. Study Conducted in: A large rural public university setting in the U.S. Participating Individuals (Total 21 participants) Period of Participation Technology, service, and training provided Data Collection and Analysis Group #1 consisted of 5 (out of 7) officers of a large student club in the university (the “MIS Club”). All members were from the U.S. Group #2 consisted of 5 members, all of whom were exchange students visiting from a Northern European country (Norway). Group #3 consisted of 5 members, all of them being from the Asian-Pacific region (3 from Thailand, 1 from China, and 1 from S. Korea). Group #4 consisted of 4 members, who were also team members for an ecommerce course term project. All members were from the U.S. Group # 5 consisted of all 7 officers of a large student club in the university (the “MIS Club”). All members were from the U.S. 3 weeks (Data collection involving Groups 4 and 5 was initiated at the conclusion of the study of Groups 1, 2, and 3). •Device: Samsung SPH-N300. •Sprint service that allowed voice communication, and well as use of other data features. •90-minute training session on voice features, WAP browsing, text-messaging, connection to Internet services, conducted by the research team. •30-minute (approx.) interviews with participants each week; all interviews were transcribed. •Researchers adopted an interpretive stance during the study. •Multiple researchers involved in each interview. •Sometimes multiple interviewees in the same session. •Analysis followed the spirit of coding procedures recommended in the Grounded Theory Methodology (GTM). o Open coding, wherein transcripts are read and important concepts were identified. o Axial coding, wherein concepts were organized into meaningful categories. o Selective coding, wherein all other categories were linked to the core category of mobile technology use. Some methodological details about the exploratory study

which the mobile device users balanced the expenses you will find something under. And before you can and convenience associated with mobil browse the submenus on the Web you have to get on Technology self-efficacy, which refers to an individ- the Web" or" there is just too much going on [in] the uals degree of confidence in using high-tech devices, messaging system. if you send a message [it should was observed an important predictor of use and be] two presses away . you go on the menu, it says exposure to other mobile devices were found to that' ir i' you go in there, you type it, you send it encounter difficulties in switching from their exist- Network capabilities: Poor network characteristics ing technological frames [8], which included differ- acted as severe inhibitors to use and adoption. For accomplish a task, anld equences of keystrokes to example, the lack of coverage in many areas tended ent sets of features expectations of performance to reduce the sense of freedom and safety in many in comparison with other devices subjects minds. The limited reach of mobile tech- Cultural origin frequently plays a role in defining nology due to lack of (or limitations in) capability to individuals patterns of usage of mobile technology. communicate across networks(such as Sprint and In particular, the symbolic meaning of text messag. Verizon) also dampened the use process and enthu- ing over a mobile device can be different across cul- siasm for adoption. Finally, the lack of reliability and reduced responsiveness of the network(downtime)con- CHARACTERISTICS tributed significantly toward COMMUNICATION/TASK eroding the users' trust in(and, hus. their inter est in usin Communication Objectives wireless technology ommunication/ Task ch MODALITY O acteristics. As mobile device fea- ty ofU andering, visiting) unicity) Exter potential applications are discov Adjustment of Frames ered and use practices continue to evolve. Nevertheless. a num- ber of ly observable obile ging, Critical mass of subscribers and Available Services hy of discussion Number of ures,depending on " power distance. For example, An integrated be very suitable for in high power distance cultures such as Korea, text framework for the information messaging to individuals such as work supervisors mobile handi email, checking stock quotes and was seen as a serious offense. In contrast, users from devices news headlines), especially when lower power distance cultures such as Norway did the subject was seeking to fill a not see text messaging as being offensive, though time slot that would otherwise be lost(during a short some did indicate that text messaging could be bus ride, while waiting in a line). Also, bilateral use of potentially unsuitable for formal communication data features(such as through text messaging) was with someone unfamiliar due to the frequent use of quite effective under many circumstances; however, abbreviations and slang terms. simultaneous multi-lateral use was difficult, though Technology Characteristics. Two broad factors not infeasible [2] affecting the implementation and acceptance of Immediacy of response desired: Examples include wireless phones emerged, as described here. situations when an immediate confirmation of a Interface characteristics: Users were usually quite message is desired due to urgency of the circum forgiving of physical limitations of the device due to stances; where there exists a need for micro-coordi- technological constraints, but were bothered by nation of activities due to the rapidly changing flaws in the logical interface of the devices, as seen in physical positions and schedules of communicators the following illustrative comments: They need to [6]; and where the value/relevance of an idea to the make it easier for normal people to use, not just recipient is very time sensitive techno-geeks, or you dont know which sub-menu Volume of communi desired can influence use COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 2003/Vol 46. No 12 37

which the mobile device users balanced the expenses and convenience associated with mobility. Technology self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s degree of confidence in using high-tech devices, was observed an important predictor of use and adoption behaviors. Interestingly, those with prior exposure to other mobile devices were found to encounter difficulties in switching from their existing technological frames [8], which included different sets of features, sequences of keystrokes to accomplish a task, and expectations of performance in comparison with other devices. Cultural origin frequently plays a role in defining individuals’ patterns of usage of mobile technology. In particular, the symbolic meaning of text messaging over a mobile device can be different across cultures, depending on “power distance.” For example, in high power distance cultures such as Korea, text messaging to individuals such as work supervisors was seen as a serious offense. In contrast, users from lower power distance cultures such as Norway did not see text messaging as being offensive, though some did indicate that text messaging could be potentially unsuitable for formal communication with someone unfamiliar due to the frequent use of abbreviations and slang terms. Technology Characteristics. Two broad factors affecting the implementation and acceptance of wireless phones emerged, as described here. Interface characteristics: Users were usually quite forgiving of physical limitations of the device due to technological constraints, but were bothered by flaws in the logical interface of the devices, as seen in the following illustrative comments: “They need to make it easier for normal people to use, not just techno-geeks,” or “you don’t know which sub-menu you will find something under. And before you can browse the submenus on the Web you have to get on the Web” or “there is just too much going on [in] the messaging system.. if you send a message [it should be] two presses away… you go on the menu, it says ‘message’; you go in there, you type it, you send it, that’s it.” Network capabilities: Poor network characteristics acted as severe inhibitors to use and adoption. For example, the lack of coverage in many areas tended to reduce the sense of freedom and safety in many subjects’ minds. The limited reach of mobile technology due to lack of (or limitations in) capability to communicate across networks (such as Sprint and Verizon) also dampened the use process and enthusiasm for adoption. Finally, the lack of reliability and reduced responsiveness of the network (downtime) contributed significantly toward eroding the users’ trust in (and, thus, their interest in using) wireless technology. Communication/Task Characteristics. As mobile device features are introduced, new potential applications are discovered and use practices continue to evolve. Nevertheless, a number of currently observable usepatterns, particularly related to mobile text messaging, are worthy of discussion. Number of interacting participants: Mobile devices appeared to be very suitable for accessing information unilaterally (reading email, checking stock quotes and news headlines), especially when the subject was seeking to fill a time slot that would otherwise be lost (during a short bus ride, while waiting in a line). Also, bilateral use of data features (such as through text messaging) was quite effective under many circumstances; however, simultaneous multi-lateral use was difficult, though not infeasible [2]. Immediacy of response desired: Examples include situations when an immediate confirmation of a message is desired due to urgency of the circumstances; where there exists a need for micro-coordination of activities due to the rapidly changing physical positions and schedules of communicators [6]; and where the value/relevance of an idea to the recipient is very time sensitive. Volume of communication desired can influence use COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 2003/Vol. 46, No. 12 37 EXPLORATION and EXPERIMENTATION - Media Choice (Voice/ Data, Synchronicity) - Extent & Exclusiveness - Adjustment of Frames COMMUNICATION/TASK CHARACTERISTICS - Number of Interacting Participants - Immediacy of Response - Volume of Communication - Communication Objectives MODALITY OF MOBILITY - Type (Traveling, Wandering, Visiting) - Extent TECHNOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS - Interface Characteristics - Network Capabilities CONTEXT - Economic Factors - Social Factors - Critical Mass of Subscribers and Available Services INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - Age - Culture - Technological Self-Efficacy and Prior Experience ASSESSMENT OF EXPERIENCE - Functional - Psychosocial - Relational ADOPTION OUTCOME - Continuity of Use Over Time - Resource Commitment USE PROCESS An integrated framework for the use and adoption of mobile handheld devices

patterns. For example, mobile text messaging was for those traveling often, in contrast with the yearn suitable when short messages were ing or freedon expressed by those frequently wan sent/exchanged. Current constraints with respect to dering. Further, different characteristics of the device, especially the nature of the keyboard, technologies were associated with different types made it virtually infeasible to participate in a high- and extent of mobility. For example, the optimal size volume text exchan of a device associated with wandering was necessar- Communication objectives may be classified as ily lower than an acceptable device size when visit conveyance, convergence, and passive reception. ing or traveling, and one needed a larger reach of the Different media(voice, text messaging, and email) technological network when traveling than when were viewed as suitable for different objectives, given wandering a social context. For example, mobile text messaging Context. Undoubtedly, the surrounding socio- seemed suitable for conveying a piece of informa- economic context plays an important moderating THE AVAILABILITY of' dufficient number of mobile Web dervices increaded the use of data features and consequently the chance of adoption tion, rather than when individuals needed conver- role on the effect of the factors discussed previousl gence on a shared understanding of equivocal Economic factors and technological infrastructure: situations. Of course, creating a high level of syn- For individuals on a limited budget(such as college hronicity in communication through back-and- students), use patterns were highly influenced by forth messaging co ould enable two individuals to economic considerations. Even though the advan- reach some convergence [1] tages of being mobile were apparent and desirable, Modalities of Mobility. Perhaps the most touted for many, the convenience was not worth the addi advantage of wireless technology is its ability to tional expense. Further, the pricing plans of various enable mobile communication, mobile collabora- service providers were found to encourage and dis- tion, and mobile commerce. While descriptions of courage different types of behavior. For example, the innovative applications of mobile technology and relative popularity of text messaging in Norway visions of future scenarios abound in the literature, compared to Thailand was attributed to the relative the meaning of mobility, the types of mobility, and costs associated with this form of communication in the implications of different types of mobility on the two countries. The level of proliferation of wireless device use remain unclear. Traveling, wan- mobile devices was also related to the existing qual dering, and visiting were seen as three ways to qual- ity and availability of traditional telecommunica- ify the essence of mobility [4]. Traveling is defined tions infrastructure, and to the accessibility of public as the process of going from one place to another in telecommunications facilities a vehicle"[4]. For example, a five-hour drive from Social factors: The expectation of continuous one city to another could belong to this category of availability and responsiveness associated with mobility. Wandering, on the other hand, refers to a mobile device use appears to have a natural fit with form of extensive local mobility" where an individ- cultures such as the U.S. that are fast-paced and ual may spend considerable time walking around on information for decision making in every asp 4. Finally, visiting refers to stopping by at some of life. Another interesting motivation for mol location and spending time there, before moving on device use, in the case of a major city in Thailand, to another location was the fact that people are often stuck in their car Different types and extent of mobility are associ- due to frequent traffic jams, and social practice ated with different motivations underlying use pat- engaging in"more or less meaningless conversation terns. For example, safety was an important concern as a leisure activity. Another related issue is that of 38 December 2003/Vol 46. No 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM

patterns. For example, mobile text messaging was seen as suitable when short messages were sent/exchanged. Current constraints with respect to the device, especially the nature of the keyboard, made it virtually infeasible to participate in a highvolume text exchange. Communication objectives may be classified as conveyance, convergence, and passive reception. Different media (voice, text messaging, and email) were viewed as suitable for different objectives, given a social context. For example, mobile text messaging seemed suitable for conveying a piece of information, rather than when individuals needed convergence on a shared understanding of equivocal situations. Of course, creating a high level of synchronicity in communication through back-andforth messaging could enable two individuals to reach some convergence [1]. Modalities of Mobility. Perhaps the most touted advantage of wireless technology is its ability to enable mobile communication, mobile collaboration, and mobile commerce. While descriptions of innovative applications of mobile technology and visions of future scenarios abound in the literature, the meaning of mobility, the types of mobility, and the implications of different types of mobility on wireless device use remain unclear. Traveling, wandering, and visiting were seen as three ways to qualify the essence of mobility [4]. Traveling is defined as “the process of going from one place to another in a vehicle” [4]. For example, a five-hour drive from one city to another could belong to this category of mobility. Wandering, on the other hand, refers to a form of “extensive local mobility” where an individual may spend considerable time walking around [4]. Finally, visiting refers to stopping by at some location and spending time there, before moving on to another location. Different types and extent of mobility are associated with different motivations underlying use patterns. For example, safety was an important concern for those traveling often, in contrast with the yearning for freedom expressed by those frequently wandering. Further, different characteristics of technologies were associated with different types and extent of mobility. For example, the optimal size of a device associated with wandering was necessarily lower than an acceptable device size when visiting or traveling, and one needed a larger reach of the technological network when traveling than when wandering. Context. Undoubtedly, the surrounding socioeconomic context plays an important moderating role on the effect of the factors discussed previously. Economic factors and technological infrastructure: For individuals on a limited budget (such as college students), use patterns were highly influenced by economic considerations. Even though the advantages of being mobile were apparent and desirable, for many, the convenience was not worth the additional expense. Further, the pricing plans of various service providers were found to encourage and discourage different types of behavior. For example, the relative popularity of text messaging in Norway compared to Thailand was attributed to the relative costs associated with this form of communication in the two countries. The level of proliferation of mobile devices was also related to the existing quality and availability of traditional telecommunications infrastructure, and to the accessibility of public telecommunications facilities. Social factors: The expectation of continuous availability and responsiveness associated with mobile device use appears to have a natural fit with cultures such as the U.S. that are fast-paced and rely on information for decision making in every aspect of life. Another interesting motivation for mobile device use, in the case of a major city in Thailand, was the fact that people are often stuck in their car due to frequent traffic jams, and social practice of engaging in “more or less meaningless conversation” as a leisure activity. Another related issue is that of 38 December 2003/Vol. 46, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM THE AVAILABILITY of a sufficient number of mobile Web services increased the use of data features and consequently, the chance of adoption

symbolism, which refers to the meaning(beyond Impact on Functional Effectiveness and Efficiency functionality) that members in the culture hold and on Interpersonal Relationships: Being reachable about possessing and using a mobile device. Societies anywhere and at any time has obvious advantages, where the penetration of mobile technology is not such as improved coordination and the elimination substantial may view these devices as a young of wasted time when waiting for input from individ thing, " "a rich thing, and"a cool thing, and con- uals who may be traveling, visiting, or wandering tribute to the users' perception of an enhanced sense This positive orientation to mobile technology of self-importance reflected in the view expressed by one of our sub Critical Mass: For an individual to use a wireless jects: mobility means efficiency. Given that wire device, particularly its data features, a significant less phones are carried around by users, they may be number of members of the subject's social network able to "fill time, implying the users can call some needed to be users of the same features. Further, the one, check email, or send text messages in time slots availability of a sufficient number of mobile Web between other scheduled activities, while wandering services(such as news or chat services)increased the from one point to another on campus or while trav use of data features and, subsequently, the chances of eling from home to work. Sometimes, the filling of adoption time is equivalent to the killing of time when the individuals use the mobile devices merely to keep The Use process themselves engaged or entertained in a free time slot The first step in the use process is Exploration and (or in a time slot that should have been put to more Experimentation, which involves the following productive use); otherwise, mobile devices can Mr boice of appropriate medium of communication enable"shifting"of time, for example, by checking the level of synchronicity: This refers to the email and reading/sending short messages durin medium used when communicating through a wire- time slots between scheduled activities. less device(for example, voice, text messaging, Having access to a mobile device also enabled email)and the synchronicity of the medium chosen users to take care of various business and social (the degree of delay involved in a bidirectional infor- obligations throughout the day, almost in real time mation exchange) as issues are confronted, rather than batching all the Choice of extent, mode, and exclusiveness of use: messages and responding later upon returning to This is related to the frequency and volume of com- one's workstation. Benefits notwithstanding, there municating with a wireless device, whether the par- are a number of potentially negative effects on pro- ticipant primarily acts as an initiator, recipient, or fessional and social relationships, most arising from oth, and the extent to which such a device is uti- encroachment of personal/ family time due to con lized as compared to tethered devices for communi- tinuous interruption through the mobile device cation, coordination, and Web access needs given the norm of constant availability, and from Adjustment of cognitive frame regarding technology: unmet expectations regarding responsiveness, as an This involves the process of reframing mobile tech- individual switches off or ignores mobile devices nology as new motivations, modes, and conse- to limit the uncontrolled intrusion of others on quences of applying the technology emerge over personal time time. The adjustment of the cognitive frame also Psychosocial outcomes: In addition to the more tan includes learning to improvise in order to bypass the gible impacts of mobile technology use discussed current limitations of mobile technology that are previously, a number of psychosocial impacts being explored and experimented with. For example, observed: a sense of safety and security during through innovation in work practices and organiza- eling, elevated self-worth professionally or in a social tion(socially configuring the group as a "ring net- group, a feeling of irritation with society's prediled work), a group of subjects utilized a technology tion for mobile technology, and a sense of physical enabling one-to-one communication as a group col- and cognitive attachment with the mobile device laboration technology users may feel out of the loop or detached" with- q The second step of the process can be labeled the out the mobile device that they may be accustomed ssessment of the Experience(that is, Exploration to carrying). Interestingly, users of mobile devices and Experimentation) with the device, which, in experienced a simultaneous sense of freedom from turn,recursively influences the manner in which the being bound to their desks with a tethered device, yet devices are utilized. Users appeared to assess their at the same time, a sense of captivity owing to the experiences on at least three dimensions: functional, compulsiveness of responding to communication ini- psychosocial, and relational tiated by others at any or every time COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 2003/Vol 46. No 12 39

symbolism, which refers to the meaning (beyond functionality) that members in the culture hold about possessing and using a mobile device. Societies where the penetration of mobile technology is not substantial may view these devices as “a young thing,” “a rich thing,” and “a cool thing,” and contribute to the users’ perception of an enhanced sense of self-importance. Critical Mass: For an individual to use a wireless device, particularly its data features, a significant number of members of the subject’s social network needed to be users of the same features. Further, the availability of a sufficient number of mobile Web services (such as news or chat services) increased the use of data features and, subsequently, the chances of adoption. The Use Process The first step in the use process is Exploration and Experimentation, which involves the following. Choice of appropriate medium of communication and the level of synchronicity: This refers to the medium used when communicating through a wireless device (for example, voice, text messaging, email) and the synchronicity of the medium chosen (the degree of delay involved in a bidirectional information exchange). Choice of extent, mode, and exclusiveness of use: This is related to the frequency and volume of communicating with a wireless device, whether the participant primarily acts as an initiator, recipient, or both, and the extent to which such a device is utilized as compared to tethered devices for communication, coordination, and Web access needs. Adjustment of cognitive frame regarding technology: This involves the process of reframing mobile technology as new motivations, modes, and consequences of applying the technology emerge over time. The adjustment of the cognitive frame also includes learning to improvise in order to bypass the current limitations of mobile technology that are being explored and experimented with. For example, through innovation in work practices and organization (socially configuring the group as a “ring network”), a group of subjects utilized a technology enabling one-to-one communication as a group collaboration technology. The second step of the process can be labeled the Assessment of the Experience (that is, Exploration and Experimentation) with the device, which, in turn, recursively influences the manner in which the devices are utilized. Users appeared to assess their experiences on at least three dimensions: functional, psychosocial, and relational. Impact on Functional Effectiveness and Efficiency, and on Interpersonal Relationships: Being reachable anywhere and at any time has obvious advantages, such as improved coordination and the elimination of wasted time when waiting for input from individuals who may be traveling, visiting, or wandering. This positive orientation to mobile technology is reflected in the view expressed by one of our subjects: “mobility means efficiency.” Given that wireless phones are carried around by users, they may be able to “fill” time, implying the users can call someone, check email, or send text messages in time slots between other scheduled activities, while wandering from one point to another on campus or while traveling from home to work. Sometimes, the filling of time is equivalent to the “killing” of time when the individuals use the mobile devices merely to keep themselves engaged or entertained in a free time slot (or in a time slot that should have been put to more productive use); otherwise, mobile devices can enable “shifting” of time, for example, by checking email and reading/sending short messages during time slots between scheduled activities. Having access to a mobile device also enabled users to take care of various business and social obligations throughout the day, almost in real time as issues are confronted, rather than batching all the messages and responding later upon returning to one’s workstation. Benefits notwithstanding, there are a number of potentially negative effects on professional and social relationships, most arising from encroachment of personal/family time due to continuous interruption through the mobile device given the norm of constant availability, and from unmet expectations regarding responsiveness, as an individual switches off or ignores mobile devices to limit the uncontrolled intrusion of others on personal time. Psychosocial outcomes: In addition to the more tangible impacts of mobile technology use discussed previously, a number of psychosocial impacts were observed: a sense of safety and security during traveling, elevated self-worth professionally or in a social group, a feeling of irritation with society’s predilection for mobile technology, and a sense of physical and cognitive attachment with the mobile device (users may feel “out of the loop” or “detached” without the mobile device that they may be accustomed to carrying). Interestingly, users of mobile devices experienced a simultaneous sense of freedom from being bound to their desks with a tethered device, yet, at the same time, a sense of captivity owing to the compulsiveness of responding to communication initiated by others at any or every time. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 2003/Vol. 46, No. 12 39

Ⅰ NTERESTINGLY, USERS of mobile deviced experienced a imultaneoue dende of freedom from being bound to their desks with a tethered device, yet, at the same time, a dende of captivity. a device readily available often allowed and encour- acceptance of mobile devices among indiVidua pread Changing relationships among individuals: Having largely ignoring the fact that without wides aged individuals to communicate, whether using sumers, the promise of mobility cannot be realized. voice or text, with others with whom communica- In our study, through social analysis, we have inves- tion would not have otherwise occurred, thereby tigated how and why mobile handheld device adop establishing or reestablishing functionally useful ties. tion occurs. While we do not claim the findings The availability of a communication device also tends presented here are exhaustive, we are hopeful the to lead to greater frequency and volume of communi- holistic framework presented will be valuable cation with members of the immediate social net- advancing knowledge in the emerging area of work, rendering the relationships "closer[2]. m-communication and m-commerce. C Interactions using mobile devices can transform the nature of interpersonal relationships in yet another REFERENCES interesting though unexpected way. One of the 1. Dennis, A.R and Valacich, J. Rethinking media richness: Toward mobile groups we studied reported that their leader, 2. Isacs, E, Walendowski, A, and Rune 'S Proceedings, 1999 han. D. Mobile instant mes who normally plays a facilitative role in face-to-face saging through Hubbub. Commun. ACM 45. 9(Sept 2002),68-72 b ng. more auto- 3. Kleijnen, M, de Ruyter, K, and Wetzels, M.G. M. Factors influencing cratic, leading to dissatisfaction in the team. The one- neck and TJ.Strader. Idea, Hershey, PA, 2003, 202-217 to-one communication imperative of using the devices 4. Kristoffersen, S. and ljungberg, F. Mo bility From stationary to mobile resulted in the leader becoming the central node in the Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 2000, 137-15'ds. Planct Internet, communication, with all members sending their 5. Lim, E and Siau, K Editorial preface: Mobile commerce. Journal of responses to him, and the leader unilaterally making 6. Ling, R. We will be reached: The use of mobile telephony among nor- the decisions and communicating his decisions to the uth. Information Te group members 7. Malladi, R. and Agrawal, D.P. Current and future mobile and wireless networks. Commun. ACM 45 10(0t. 2002) Output-Adoption Outcome 144-146 A positive experience with the use process, reflected 8. Orlikowski, w.J. and Gash, D. Technological frames: Maki in favorable assessment in terms of the functional, tion Systems 12. 2(1994). 174-207 psychosocial, and relational outcomes, influenced doption decisions and behavior. This pattern is likely to hold true especially in a voluntary technol- SUPRATEEK SARKER (arkers a wsu. edu) is an assistant professor ogy adoption scenario. Different levels of adoption in the College of Business and Economics at WashingtonState were signaled by study participants based on the JoHN D. WELLs (wellsid@wsu. edu) is an assistant professor in resources to enable the routine use of different fea- University, Pullman, WA. tures of the technology over time room use is granted without Conclusion lis notice and the full citation on the first Page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute he areas of m-communication and m-commerce lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee are promising, yet confusion is abundant. Much of the existing literature dwells on the description of technological leaps and the economic implications, o 2003 ACM 0002-0782/03/1200$5.00 December 2003/Vol 46, No 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM

Changing relationships among individuals: Having a device readily available often allowed and encouraged individuals to communicate, whether using voice or text, with others with whom communication would not have otherwise occurred, thereby establishing or reestablishing functionally useful ties. The availability of a communication device also tends to lead to greater frequency and volume of communication with members of the immediate social network, rendering the relationships “closer” [2]. Interactions using mobile devices can transform the nature of interpersonal relationships in yet another interesting though unexpected way. One of the mobile groups we studied reported that their leader, who normally plays a facilitative role in face-to-face meetings, came to be perceived as being more autocratic, leading to dissatisfaction in the team. The oneto-one communication imperative of using the devices resulted in the leader becoming the central node in the communication, with all members sending their responses to him, and the leader unilaterally making the decisions and communicating his decisions to the group members. Output—Adoption Outcome A positive experience with the use process, reflected in favorable assessment in terms of the functional, psychosocial, and relational outcomes, influenced adoption decisions and behavior. This pattern is likely to hold true especially in a voluntary technology adoption scenario. Different levels of adoption were signaled by study participants based on the degree of commitment of time, effort, and financial resources to enable the routine use of different features of the technology over time. Conclusion The areas of m-communication and m-commerce are promising, yet confusion is abundant. Much of the existing literature dwells on the description of technological leaps and the economic implications, largely ignoring the fact that without widespread acceptance of mobile devices among individual consumers, the promise of mobility cannot be realized. In our study, through social analysis, we have investigated how and why mobile handheld device adoption occurs. While we do not claim the findings presented here are exhaustive, we are hopeful the holistic framework presented will be valuable in advancing knowledge in the emerging area of m-communication and m-commerce. References 1. Dennis, A.R. and Valacich, J.S. Rethinking media richness: Toward a theory of media synchronicity.” HICSS Proceedings, 1999. 2. Isaacs, E., Walendowski, A., and Ranganathan, D. Mobile instant messaging through Hubbub. Commun. ACM 45, 9 (Sept. 2002), 68–72. 3. Kleijnen, M., de Ruyter, K., and Wetzels, M.G.M. Factors influencing the adoption of mobile gaming services. In Mobile Commerce, B.E. Mennecke and T.J. Strader. Idea, Hershey, PA, 2003, 202–217. 4. Kristoffersen, S. and Ljungberg, F. Mobility: From stationary to mobile work. In K. Braa, C. Sorensen, and B. Dahlbom, Eds., Planet Internet, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 2000, 137–156. 5. Lim, E. and Siau, K. Editorial preface: Mobile commerce. Journal of Database Management 12, 3 (Mar. 2001). 6. Ling, R. We will be reached: The use of mobile telephony among Norwegian youth. Information Technology and People 13, 2 (2000), 102–120. 7. Malladi, R. and Agrawal, D.P. Current and future applications and mobile and wireless networks. Commun. ACM 45, 10 (Oct. 2002), 144–146. 8. Orlikowski, W.J. and Gash, D. Technological frames: Making sense of information technology in organizations. ACM Transactions on Information Systems 12, 2 (1994), 174–207. Suprateek Sarker (sarkers@wsu.edu) is an assistant professor in the College of Business and Economics at Washington State University, Pullman, WA. John D. Wells (wellsjd@wsu.edu) is an assistant professor in the College of Business and Economics at Washington State University, Pullman, WA. Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. © 2003 ACM 0002-0782/03/1200 $5.00 c 40 December 2003/Vol. 46, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM INTERESTINGLY, USERS of mobile devices experienced a simultaneous sense of freedom from being bound to their desks with a tethered device, yet, at the same time, a sense of captivity

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