《计算机网络》课程教学资源（学习资料）XII-The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry past, present and future-IJMC05

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114 Int. J. Mobile Communications, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2005 The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry: past, present and future Jiang Yu* Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CB2 1RX, UK Institute of Policy and Management, Chinese Academy of Science (CAS), Beijing, 100080, China E-mail: jy250@cam.ac.uk *Corresponding author Kim Hua Tan Centre for Strategy and Performance, University of Cambridge, CB2 1RX, UK E-mail: kht23@cam.ac.uk Abstract: This paper studies the evolutionary direction of the mobile telecommunications industry in China. Different stages of the industry development process with policy intervention and market competition are examined. The interaction of different players like the Chinese government, incumbent operator, and competitive operator within an actor-network is studied. A process-mapping technique is used to visualise the key drivers of the evolution trajectory of this giant industry. In the meantime, an analytic framework is developed. The future road toward 3G network in China is also analysed. Keywords: evolution; mobile telecommunications; China. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Yu, J. and Tan, K.H. (2005) ‘The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry: past, present and future’, Int. J. Mobile Communications, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.114–126. Biographical notes: Jiang Yu is from Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) and is a visiting Research Fellow in the Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge. Kim Hua Tan is a Research Fellow in the Centre for Strategy and Performance, University of Cambridge. 1 Introduction In July 2001, the Ministry of Information Industry (MII) of the People’s Republic of China announced that the number of its mobile phone users has reached 120.6 million, which makes China the largest mobile communication market in the world. Compared with other developed countries, this is indeed a significant milestone for China’s mobile telecommunications industry after 14 years of government-led development without Copyright © 2005 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd

The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry 115 privatisation. This industry has achieved a sustained development over the past few years despite the sluggish development of the global telecommunications market. The number of mobile subscribers in China had doubled each year from 1994 to 2001. By the end of 2002 China had 206.3 million mobile telecommunications subscribers(MPT, MIl, 1994-2002), and had become one of the hottest spots for the international and domestic telecom operators, equipment and phone manufacturers. The evolution of Chinas mobile telecom industry since its inception in 1987 appears to be a multistage industrial development process with policy intervention and market competition. This research traces the periods of the evolutionary process to capture the patterns and drivers in such a process There is extensive literature on the relationship between industrial structure, entry and telecommunications circles, systemic innovation examples are these ry. In the mobile the diffusion of technology in the telecommunications indt ccessive generation of first generation(IG), second generation (2G)and third generation(3G) systems The revolution will impact not only our daily lives and the way business is conducted (Siau and Shen, 2003; Maitland et al., 2002; Barnes and Corbitt, 2003). The time span of developing a new cellular system was longer than ten years, and demanded access to vast amount of resources. Thus, a mandate to develop such a system from policy makers including the government, or corporate boards was needed (Hughes, 1987; Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001; Haug, 2002). Some studies have considered individual or a limited number of countries, focusing on mobile telecommunications market conduct(Parker and Roller, 1997); on the role of country characteristics(Dekimpe et al., 1998); or on the new service adoption and diffusion behaviour(Anil et al., 2003; Gruber and Verboven, 2001). Other studies paid more attentions to the technology trajectory aspect(Helo, 2003) Gruber and Verboven(1999) looked at the effects of competition on diffusion in European countries, emphasising the importance of capacity increase due to the transition from analogue to digital technologies However, previous literature in mobile telecommunications cycle falls short in exploring the roles of policy design and market competition in large developing countries'industry development without privatisation. This paper aims to map out the structure and dynamics of the Chinese mobile telecommunications service industry within the actor-network perspective. Actor-network can be used to examine the processes including the interactions, connections and activities of the actors ( Comber, 2003). There are a large number of enterprises and bureaucracies contending for economic advantage and power within Chinas domestic mobile telecommunications sector with different involvement in the industry development. For analytical purposes, it is useful to first reduce these entities into three distinct actor groups: the regulator, the ncumbent operator and the competitive operator We have conducted an empirical study on Chinas mobile telecommunications industry. Interviews were conducted with key managers from the two existing mobile operators and some govemment regulatory officials. Secondary data was collected from government statistics, industry report, and other corporate reports. The data collected over a period of time in the course of the industry's development will be used for in-depth analysis. Mintzberg and Waters(1985) proposed the use of a mapping technique to identify patterns and interactions among multiple interrelated variables. The interactions among different actors in China,'s mobile telecommunications industry and the linkages of their activities are mapped according to Mintzberg's technique

The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry 115 privatisation. This industry has achieved a sustained development over the past few years despite the sluggish development of the global telecommunications market. The number of mobile subscribers in China had doubled each year from 1994 to 2001. By the end of 2002 China had 206.3 million mobile telecommunications subscribers (MPT, MII, 1994–2002), and had become one of the hottest spots for the international and domestic telecom operators, equipment and phone manufacturers. The evolution of China’s mobile telecom industry since its inception in 1987 appears to be a multistage industrial development process with policy intervention and market competition. This research traces the periods of the evolutionary process to capture the patterns and drivers in such a process. There is extensive literature on the relationship between industrial structure, entry and the diffusion of technology in the telecommunications industry. In the mobile telecommunications circles, systemic innovation examples are the successive generations of first generation (1G), second generation (2G) and third generation (3G) systems. The revolution will impact not only our daily lives and the way business is conducted (Siau and Shen, 2003; Maitland et al., 2002; Barnes and Corbitt, 2003). The time span of developing a new cellular system was longer than ten years, and demanded access to vast amount of resources. Thus, a mandate to develop such a system from policy makers including the government, or corporate boards was needed (Hughes, 1987; Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001; Haug, 2002). Some studies have considered individual or a limited number of countries, focusing on mobile telecommunications market conduct (Parker and Röller, 1997); on the role of country characteristics (Dekimpe et al., 1998); or on the new service adoption and diffusion behaviour (Anil et al., 2003; Gruber and Verboven, 2001). Other studies paid more attentions to the technology trajectory aspect (Helo, 2003). Gruber and Verboven (1999) looked at the effects of competition on diffusion in European countries, emphasising the importance of capacity increase due to the transition from analogue to digital technologies. However, previous literature in mobile telecommunications cycle falls short in exploring the roles of policy design and market competition in large developing countries’ industry development without privatisation. This paper aims to map out the structure and dynamics of the Chinese mobile telecommunications service industry within the actor-network perspective. Actor–network can be used to examine the processes including the interactions, connections and activities of the actors (Comber, 2003). There are a large number of enterprises and bureaucracies contending for economic advantage and power within China’s domestic mobile telecommunications sector with different involvement in the industry development. For analytical purposes, it is useful to first reduce these entities into three distinct actor groups: the regulator, the incumbent operator and the competitive operator. We have conducted an empirical study on China’s mobile telecommunications industry. Interviews were conducted with key managers from the two existing mobile operators and some government regulatory officials. Secondary data was collected from government statistics, industry report, and other corporate reports. The data collected over a period of time in the course of the industry’s development will be used for in-depth analysis. Mintzberg and Waters (1985) proposed the use of a mapping technique to identify patterns and interactions among multiple interrelated variables. The interactions among different actors in China’s mobile telecommunications industry and the linkages of their activities are mapped according to Mintzberg’s technique

116. Yu and KH. Tan The paper is structured into six sections. The evolution of mobile telecommunications is discussed in Section 2. The regulatory environment of China is reviewed in Section 3 Section 4 shows the evolution-process mapping after which an analytical framework is developed to facilitate the understanding of the evolution. The future road to 3G of China is discussed in Section 5. Finally, the implications of this research for government policy makers and industrialists are discussed 2 The evolution of mobile telecommunications in China The evolution of Chinese mobile telecommunications industry from the end of the 1980s could be chronologically divided into four periods, namely the pure monopoly. competitive, pure duopoly and pre-3G periods(see Table 1) Table 1 Evolution periods of Chinas mobile telecommunications industry Pure monopoly Competitive Pure duopoly Pre-3G period Time span November July 1994- April 1998-May May 2002-2005 April 1998 2002 Mobile systems TACS, AMPS GSM, TACS GSM, CDMA IS-9 GSM, (GPRS), DMA2000-1X) Major players China telecom China China mobile, China Mobile. Telecom. China unicom China Unicom Regulate MPI MIl Subscriber number 1.1 16.8 175.2 2.1 Pure monopoly The poorly developed landline telecommunications infrastructure in China has become a bottleneck for domestic economic growth in the past and the same story applies to the first stages in the development of mobile telecommunications. The TACS(Total Access Communication System), the first analogue cellular system was provided monopolistically by China Telecom in Guangzhou, the biggest city in Southern China This first cellular exchange opened with a subscriber base of 150 in November 1987. The AMPS(Advanced Mobile Phone System) was introduced in Northwestern China also by China Telecom. The heavy and clumsy analogue handset soon became a symbol of wealth and status in big cities due to high handset prices and service charges. In 1992, in order to purchase a handset from China Telecom(there was no other choice) and get connected, users incurred costs amounting to US$4, 300, which was equivalent to 14 times the GDP per capita in the same year(NBSC, 1992). Only local businessmen and foreign corporations were able to afford such mobile services

116 J. Yu and K.H. Tan The paper is structured into six sections. The evolution of mobile telecommunications is discussed in Section 2. The regulatory environment of China is reviewed in Section 3. Section 4 shows the evolution-process mapping after which an analytical framework is developed to facilitate the understanding of the evolution. The future road to 3G of China is discussed in Section 5. Finally, the implications of this research for government policy makers and industrialists are discussed. 2 The evolution of mobile telecommunications in China The evolution of Chinese mobile telecommunications industry from the end of the 1980s could be chronologically divided into four periods, namely the pure monopoly, competitive, pure duopoly and pre-3G periods (see Table 1). Table 1 Evolution periods of China’s mobile telecommunications industry Pure monopoly period Competitive period Pure duopoly period Pre-3G period Time span November 1987–July 1994 July 1994– April 1998 April 1998–May 2002 May 2002–2005 Mobile systems TACS, AMPS GSM, TACS GSM, CDMA IS-9 TACS GSM, (GPRS), CDMA IS-95A, (CDMA2000-1X) Major players China Telecom China Telecom, China Unicom China Mobile, China Unicom China Mobile, China Unicom Regulator MPT MPT MII MII Subscriber Number reached (in millions) 1.1 16.8 175.2 300 Source: MPT, MII 2.1 Pure monopoly period The poorly developed landline telecommunications infrastructure in China has become a bottleneck for domestic economic growth in the past and the same story applies to the first stages in the development of mobile telecommunications. The TACS (Total Access Communication System), the first analogue cellular system was provided monopolistically by China Telecom in Guangzhou, the biggest city in Southern China. This first cellular exchange opened with a subscriber base of 150 in November 1987. The AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was introduced in Northwestern China also by China Telecom. The heavy and clumsy analogue handset soon became a symbol of wealth and status in big cities due to high handset prices and service charges. In 1992, in order to purchase a handset from China Telecom (there was no other choice) and get connected, users incurred costs amounting to US$4,300, which was equivalent to 14 times the GDP per capita in the same year (NBSC, 1992). Only local businessmen and foreign corporations were able to afford such mobile services

The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry 117 Before 1998, China Telecom and the regulator of telecommunications industry in hina were affiliated. China Telecom was once the only state-owned operator monopolise the telecom market before the founding of its first competitor in 1994. As a regulator, the MPT(Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications) was also responsible for the operational and financial performance of China Telecom. In this respect, China Telecom and the MPT shared common interests (Xu, 2001). As a result, the competition in the mobile telecommunications market was impeded and therefore the welfare of the consumers could not be guaranteed. In 1993 when the Chinese government decided to establish a new competitor, there were only less than 700,000 mobile phone subscribers in China, the most populous country 2.2 Competitive period Facing the global trend towards liberation and great pressures from home and abroad to break down the monopoly, the Chinese government was inclined to use domestic competitors to pressure the mobile telecommunications sector to be more efficient. In July 1994, limited competition in the wireless sector was finally introduced with the entry of China United Telecommunications Corporation( China Unicom), which is a joint venture between shareholders from the Ministry of Electronic Industry (MED), the Ministry of Railways (MOR), and the Ministry of Electrical Power (MEP). The foundation of China Unicom formally indicated a fundamental paradigm shift in the evolution of the industry and terminated the historical monopoly operation of the mobile telecommunications network in China China Unicom soon decided to launch the advanced digital mobile service to challenge the operation of analogue network by the China Telecom. On 17 July 1995,a year after its establishment, China Unicom commercially launched its GSM(Global System for Mobile Communications) services in Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Guangzhou. Nearly the same time, the China Telecom also began to launch its GSM service, providing automatic roaming service to 15 provinces and cities in January 1996. The analogue mobile subscribers of China Telecom reached 6.85 million 1997 and then declined sharply. In the end of 2001, the analogue system was finally closed in China With the introduction gital technology, increasing network capacities also stimulated the competition between China Telecom and China Unicom. Both of the two mobile operators have been attracting customers by cutting their service prices Customers have benefited from reduced handset prices and installation fees, shortened waiting lists and improved quality of service. Take the price of handset, for example, the average price of an analogue handset was $3, 300 in 1995, but the price of a digital handset in 1997 dropped down to $900(People's Daily, 1997) However, the MPT still enjoyed dual status as both regulator and operator. Thi ineffective regulatory framework put China Unicom at a competitive disadvantage. especially with respect to network interconnection(Xu, 2001). The service provision approval procedure by MPT restrained the network coverage. The number of i subscribers reached only 1.42 million in 1998. In the same year, China Unicom's revenue was only 1/112 of China Telecoms(MIl, 1999). China Unicom and its shareholding ministries made strong appeals for the restructuring of the regulator institution asking for a complete functional and organisational separation between China Telecom and the regulator

The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry 117 Before 1998, China Telecom and the regulator of telecommunications industry in China were affiliated. China Telecom was once the only state-owned operator to monopolise the telecom market before the founding of its first competitor in 1994. As a regulator, the MPT (Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications) was also responsible for the operational and financial performance of China Telecom. In this respect, China Telecom and the MPT shared common interests (Xu, 2001). As a result, the competition in the mobile telecommunications market was impeded and therefore the welfare of the consumers could not be guaranteed. In 1993 when the Chinese government decided to establish a new competitor, there were only less than 700,000 mobile phone subscribers in China, the most populous country. 2.2 Competitive period Facing the global trend towards liberation and great pressures from home and abroad to break down the monopoly, the Chinese government was inclined to use domestic competitors to pressure the mobile telecommunications sector to be more efficient. In July 1994, limited competition in the wireless sector was finally introduced with the entry of China United Telecommunications Corporation (China Unicom), which is a joint venture between shareholders from the Ministry of Electronic Industry (MEI), the Ministry of Railways (MOR), and the Ministry of Electrical Power (MEP). The foundation of China Unicom formally indicated a fundamental paradigm shift in the evolution of the industry and terminated the historical monopoly operation of the mobile telecommunications network in China. China Unicom soon decided to launch the advanced digital mobile service to challenge the operation of analogue network by the China Telecom. On 17 July 1995, a year after its establishment, China Unicom commercially launched its GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) services in Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Guangzhou. Nearly the same time, the China Telecom also began to launch its GSM service, providing automatic roaming service to 15 provinces and cities in January 1996. The analogue mobile subscribers of China Telecom reached 6.85 million in 1997 and then declined sharply. In the end of 2001, the analogue system was finally closed in China. With the introduction of digital technology, increasing network capacities also stimulated the competition between China Telecom and China Unicom. Both of the two mobile operators have been attracting customers by cutting their service prices. Customers have benefited from reduced handset prices and installation fees, shortened waiting lists and improved quality of service. Take the price of handset, for example, the average price of an analogue handset was $3,300 in 1995, but the price of a digital handset in 1997 dropped down to $900 (People’s Daily, 1997). However, the MPT still enjoyed dual status as both regulator and operator. This ineffective regulatory framework put China Unicom at a competitive disadvantage, especially with respect to network interconnection (Xu, 2001). The service provision approval procedure by MPT restrained the network coverage. The number of its subscribers reached only 1.42 million in 1998. In the same year, China Unicom’s revenue was only 1/112 of China Telecom’s (MII, 1999). China Unicom and its shareholding ministries made strong appeals for the restructuring of the regulatory institution asking for a complete functional and organisational separation between China Telecom and the regulator

118. Yu and KH. Tan 2.3 Pure duopoly period In April 1998, the MIl(Ministry of Information Industry) was formally established by the State Council. Now Mll enjoyed a relatively neutral and independent status enabling it to take a more pro-competitive stance thus enforcing competition. As a result, China mobile was separated from China Telecom and specifically dedicated to mobile services mid-1999 Moreover the attitude of the new regulator toward China Unicom also constituted a sharp change. Instead of limiting its development, Mll made a priority policy of facilitating the rapid growth of China Unicom. For instance, in 1999 Mll initiated and completed a merger between China Unicom and GuoXin, a national radio paging company with total assets of RMB13 billion(USSl.6 billion). China Unicom could use its master license to provide gsm network services in any area unlike before where they had to secure special permission to serve each individual area. Furthermore, China Unicom had the right to a price float rate of 10% while the incumbent should obey the fixed tariff stipulated by the regulator. As a result of this fundamental change in regulatory environment, China Unicom achieved rapid network expansion. With its aggressive marketing strategy, it has developed by leaps and bounds not only in network size but also in the number of subscribers since 1998. Its market share jumped from less than 6% in 1998 to more than 33% in 2002 (see Figure 1). A highly competitive telecommunications market has really emerged in China. The competition has been a strong catalyst for the development in volume of mobile communications market, especially when China Mobile and China Unicom launched the prepaid service without installation fee at the end of 1999 Figure 1 Growth of China Unicom's market share from 1996-2002 100% 60% 40 19919919981990002001200 口 China mobile6.8513.23|23.5638036652104.5413810 口 China unicom0.120.421.425.2118.7440.4668.17 Number of mobile subscribers(000, 000) Source: MPT. MIl On the other hand. the installation fees of contracted mobile subscribers declined from S360-S610 in 1993 to $60-S70 in 1999 and was finally cancelled in June 2001(Peoples Daily, 2001). Table 2 shows the exponential growth of mobile subscribers in China since China Unicom entered the market. In July 2001, Mll announced that its mobile phone

118 J. Yu and K.H. Tan 2.3 Pure duopoly period In April 1998, the MII (Ministry of Information Industry) was formally established by the State Council. Now MII enjoyed a relatively neutral and independent status enabling it to take a more pro-competitive stance thus enforcing competition. As a result, China Mobile was separated from China Telecom and specifically dedicated to mobile services in mid-1999. Moreover, the attitude of the new regulator toward China Unicom also constituted a sharp change. Instead of limiting its development, MII made a priority policy of facilitating the rapid growth of China Unicom. For instance, in 1999 MII initiated and completed a merger between China Unicom and GuoXin, a national radio paging company with total assets of RMB13 billion (US$1.6 billion). China Unicom could use its master license to provide GSM network services in any area unlike before where they had to secure special permission to serve each individual area. Furthermore, China Unicom had the right to a price float rate of 10% while the incumbent should obey the fixed tariff stipulated by the regulator. As a result of this fundamental change in regulatory environment, China Unicom achieved rapid network expansion. With its aggressive marketing strategy, it has developed by leaps and bounds not only in network size but also in the number of subscribers since 1998. Its market share jumped from less than 6% in 1998 to more than 33% in 2002 (see Figure 1). A highly competitive telecommunications market has really emerged in China. The competition has been a strong catalyst for the development in volume of mobile communications market, especially when China Mobile and China Unicom launched the prepaid service without installation fee at the end of 1999. Figure 1 Growth of China Unicom’s market share from 1996–2002 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% China Mobile 6.85 13.23 23.56 38.03 66.52 104.54 138.10 China Unicom 0.12 0.42 1.42 5.21 18.74 40.46 68.17 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Number of mobile subscribers (000,000) Source: MPT, MII On the other hand, the installation fees of contracted mobile subscribers declined from $360–$610 in 1993 to $60–$70 in 1999 and was finally cancelled in June 2001 (People’s Daily, 2001). Table 2 shows the exponential growth of mobile subscribers in China since China Unicom entered the market. In July 2001, MII announced that its mobile phone

The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry 119 users reached 120.6 million. which makes China the largest mobile-communication-user market in the world Table 2 growth of mobile subscribers in china Mobile subscribers (000) 1771.56868532386385,260206,270 Mobile service penetration(%) 0.0150.130.551906.6716.19 Percentage of digital subscribers(%) 72.3196.20100.00 Source MPT mll According to the decision of the State Council, Mll granted a license for CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access )exclusively to China Unicom in 1999. China Unicom signed a CDMA Intellectual Property Agreement with Qualcomm Inc. in February 2000 and finally launched its CDMA IS-95A network in January 2002. By that time, China Unicom has become the only venture which runs both GSM and CDMA networks in the world. Despite the challenges of running two companies and keeping two sets of engineering, marketing and sales force the statistic figures from China Unicom indicated that by the end of 2002, it had recruited some 61.2 million GSM subscribers and over 7.0 million CDMA IS-95A subscribers(MPT, Mll, 1994-2002). Its CDMA IS-95A network tended to provide additional wireless data service, targeting medium and high-end subscribers, while the GsM network was concentrating on low-end subscribers who only favoured voice transmission services To fully explore the potential of the network resources and to generate more revenues from current subscribers both China Mobile and China Unicom have introduced a variety of value-added services in the past years. These services include caller number display, voice mail, short messages, call forwarding, call waiting, third party call and VolP long distance call. At the end of 2002. the sum of subscribers of China Mobile and China Unicom remarkably reached 206.3 million; the annual revenue of these two mobile operators also reached USS24.5 billion in the same year(MPT, MIl, 1994-2002) We can see that the decision to introduce gsm and CDMA IS-95A standards in hina, in tum, anchored a period of incremental but quick progress. The mobile telecommunications penetration rate in China grew from 0.05% in 1993 to 16.16% in 2002(MIl, 2002). To further explore the mobile data market and make up for their sharply declining ARPU(Average Revenue per User) indicator, China Mobile and China Unicom formally launched their nation-wide WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) service in May 2000. In November 2000, China Mobile introduced the monternet programme, which combines the platform for mobile and internet. Under this programme, mobile data service providers can access the mobile network anywhere in the country to provide nation-wide service. Such services including messaging, phone payment, mobile QQ, mobile securities, mobile location and broadband services. China Mobile will keep 9% of the traffic revenues while the information service providers receive 91% of the revenue. In the last quarter of 2000, China Mobile set up a subsidiary with HP Corp to support the Monternet programme. In the meantime, China Unicom also began to provide mobile data service to fuel the growth of its service revenue. To explore the mobile data market, China Unicom formed a joint venture with Qualcomm

The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry 119 users reached 120.6 million, which makes China the largest mobile-communication-user market in the world. Table 2 Growth of mobile subscribers in China 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Mobile subscribers (‘000) 177 1,568 6,853 23,863 85,260 206,270 Mobile service penetration (%) 0.015 0.13 0.55 1.90 6.67 16.19 Percentage of digital subscribers (%) 0 0 24.05 72.31 96.20 100.00 Source: MPT, MII According to the decision of the State Council, MII granted a license for CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) exclusively to China Unicom in 1999. China Unicom signed a CDMA Intellectual Property Agreement with Qualcomm Inc. in February 2000 and finally launched its CDMA IS-95A network in January 2002. By that time, China Unicom has become the only venture which runs both GSM and CDMA networks in the world. Despite the challenges of running two companies and keeping two sets of engineering, marketing and sales force, the statistic figures from China Unicom indicated that by the end of 2002, it had recruited some 61.2 million GSM subscribers and over 7.0 million CDMA IS-95A subscribers (MPT, MII, 1994–2002). Its CDMA IS-95A network tended to provide additional wireless data service, targeting medium and high-end subscribers, while the GSM network was concentrating on low-end subscribers who only favoured voice transmission services. To fully explore the potential of the network resources and to generate more revenues from current subscribers, both China Mobile and China Unicom have introduced a variety of value-added services in the past years. These services include caller number display, voice mail, short messages, call forwarding, call waiting, third party call and VoIP long distance call. At the end of 2002, the sum of subscribers of China Mobile and China Unicom remarkably reached 206.3 million; the annual revenue of these two mobile operators also reached US$24.5 billion in the same year (MPT, MII, 1994–2002). We can see that the decision to introduce GSM and CDMA IS-95A standards in China, in turn, anchored a period of incremental but quick progress. The mobile telecommunications penetration rate in China grew from 0.05% in 1993 to 16.16% in 2002 (MII, 2002). To further explore the mobile data market and make up for their sharply declining ARPU (Average Revenue per User) indicator, China Mobile and China Unicom formally launched their nation-wide WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) service in May 2000. In November 2000, China Mobile introduced the Monternet programme, which combines the platform for mobile and internet. Under this programme, mobile data service providers can access the mobile network anywhere in the country to provide nation-wide service. Such services including messaging, phone payment, mobile QQ, mobile securities, mobile location and broadband services. China Mobile will keep 9% of the traffic revenues while the information service providers receive 91% of the revenue. In the last quarter of 2000, China Mobile set up a subsidiary with HP Corp. to support the Monternet programme. In the meantime, China Unicom also began to provide mobile data service to fuel the growth of its service revenue. To explore the mobile data market, China Unicom formed a joint venture with Qualcomm

120. Yu and K.H. Tan Inc. in February 2003 to boost the development of its CDMA wireless data applications through BREW (Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless) platform. 2.4 Pre-3G period Facing the emerging tide of 3G in the world, China Mobile began to aggressively L ,grade its GSM network system facilities to GPRS networks. In May 2002,China obile commercially launched its GPRS service in main cities of China. To respond to the technological challenge posed by China Mobile, China Unicom began upgrading the CDMA-IS95A network to CDMA2000-1X network. And the cdma2000-1X service was first introduced in Shanghai in January 2003. China Unicom also plans to launch a dual-mode handset that is capable of supporting both the GSM and CDMA systems under a new brand in 2004( China Daily, 2004b) Since many applications of the 3G can be made available via GPRS and CDMA2000-1X networks. the lessons learned from these transitional networks would be beneficial not only to two mobile operators but also to value-added service providers, and will impact a long-term 3G development in in China. Therefore, the regulator and two existing mobile operators seem to be doing an intensive and careful studies on the synchronisation between future technologies and the market before making a decision ( China Daily, 2003) 3 Regulatory environment In China, the basic authority for regulating the telecommunications industry now belongs to MIl: besides MIll are the State Council and the State Planning and Development Commission(SPDC). Regulatory policies must win support from SPDC and approval from the State Council. As mentioned before, the regulatory environment in China contains the fundamental forces that affect the competitive landscape of the industry through policy intervention In November 1949, following the founding of the Peoples Republic of China MPT was formally established and was mainly responsible for formulating development plans and coordinating nationwide networks. China's telecommunications industry like other industries, experienced slow development before the late 1970s Telecommunications service was considered an instrument of the government and military. Before 1998, China Telecom was once the only national operator and could be seen as a collection of separate, state-owned enterprises that provide service at the national, provincial and local levels. Consequently, MPT tended to defend the interest of this incumbent operator uncompromisingly by creating barriers for new entrants and cared little about the interest of individual customers in china In April 1998, the Mll was formally established. It was the result of the merger between two ministries: the former MPT and former MEL. The Mll is thus an extremely powerful ministry, and all networks and IT manufacturing industries are now subject to MIls regulation. Its main commitments include development strategy formulation, policy-making, overall regulation of the information industry, including telecommunications, IT product manufacturing and the software sector. Since Mll no longer shares any common interest with the incumbent operator, we can see that the egulator currently enjoys a relatively neutral status. The establishment of the MIl

120 J. Yu and K.H. Tan Inc. in February 2003 to boost the development of its CDMA wireless data applications through BREW (Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless) platform. 2.4 Pre-3G period Facing the emerging tide of 3G in the world, China Mobile began to aggressively upgrade its GSM network system facilities to GPRS networks. In May 2002, China Mobile commercially launched its GPRS service in main cities of China. To respond to the technological challenge posed by China Mobile, China Unicom began upgrading the CDMA-IS95A network to CDMA2000-1X network. And the CDMA2000-1X service was first introduced in Shanghai in January 2003. China Unicom also plans to launch a dual-mode handset that is capable of supporting both the GSM and CDMA systems under a new brand in 2004 (China Daily, 2004b). Since many applications of the 3G can be made available via GPRS and CDMA2000-1X networks, the lessons learned from these transitional networks would be beneficial not only to two mobile operators but also to value-added service providers, and will impact a long-term 3G development in in China. Therefore, the regulator and two existing mobile operators seem to be doing an intensive and careful studies on the synchronisation between future technologies and the market before making a decision (China Daily, 2003). 3 Regulatory environment In China, the basic authority for regulating the telecommunications industry now belongs to MII; besides MII are the State Council and the State Planning and Development Commission (SPDC). Regulatory policies must win support from SPDC and approval from the State Council. As mentioned before, the regulatory environment in China contains the fundamental forces that affect the competitive landscape of the industry through policy intervention. In November 1949, following the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the MPT was formally established and was mainly responsible for formulating development plans and coordinating nationwide networks. China’s telecommunications industry, like other industries, experienced slow development before the late 1970s. Telecommunications service was considered an instrument of the government and military. Before 1998, China Telecom was once the only national operator and could be seen as a collection of separate, state-owned enterprises that provide service at the national, provincial and local levels. Consequently, MPT tended to defend the interest of this incumbent operator uncompromisingly by creating barriers for new entrants and cared little about the interest of individual customers in China. In April 1998, the MII was formally established. It was the result of the merger between two ministries: the former MPT and former MEI. The MII is thus an extremely powerful ministry, and all networks and IT manufacturing industries are now subject to MII’s regulation. Its main commitments include development strategy formulation, policy-making, overall regulation of the information industry, including telecommunications, IT product manufacturing and the software sector. Since MII no longer shares any common interest with the incumbent operator, we can see that the regulator currently enjoys a relatively neutral status. The establishment of the MII is

The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry undoubtedly a positive step toward further deregulation of the Chinese telecommunications market and ensures more effective regulations over mobile operators for the benefit of the wider community The most revolutionary step taken by the Mll since its establishment was to split the ormer China Telecom into four independent groups in mid-1999, namely: China Telecom, China Mobile, China Satellite and GuoXin Paging Company. The Mll adopted a strategy ofvertical separation'and the former China Telecom was finally split up into these four groups according to specific services. New China Telecom, however, only retained responsibility for fixed network services and China Mobile is specifically dedicated to mobile phone services: China Satellite is into satellite communications while GuoXin Paging Company focuses on radio paging services only. These new operators are financially and operationally independent. The GuoXin Paging Company subsequently merged with China Unicom to enhance China Unicom's financial strengths The regulator has paid much attention to the law and ordinance issued in 2000. The Telecommunications Regulation of the Peoples Republic of China was promulgated by the State Council on September 20, 2000 and came into force on the same day. Thi regulation become the primary ordinance to cover nearly all aspects of the telecommunications indust charges, resources, service, construction and safety. According to the ordinance, mobile network service belongs to basic telecommunications businesses and any potential entrant will be subjected to the examination and approval of the Mll under the State Council before it can obtain a business license However, Chinese government still views the state-owned telecommunica operators as a combination of commercial, social and political cells of the government. Two mobile operators must make profits for the government and also get market protection from the govemment at the same time. Mll not only supervises the whole dustry, but also holds the power to appoint, promote or dismiss key officials of China Mobile and China Unicom, and the key to personnel decisions of the two operators are inevitably made beyond the level of their own boards. 4 Evolution mapping and analytical framework 4.1 Evolution mapping As mentioned before, there are three major actors within the actor-networks of China's mobile telecommunications industry, which are the regulator, the incumbent( China Mobile) and new competitor( China Unicom). Mapping analysis was conducted to explore the interactions among actors in the industry and the linkages of their activities The researchers focus on specifying each category of player in terms of the conditions of phenomena as to why, how and when; the set of circumstances in which phenomena are embedded; the actions or reactions of actors; and the consequences of the actions or reactions. The mapping chart here consists of two axes. The vertical axis contains the key themes and events of actors that influence the industry evolution process with a layered structure. Horizontal axis represents time. The total time span will cover the industry evolution history up to now(see Figure 2)

The evolution of China’s mobile telecommunications industry 121 undoubtedly a positive step toward further deregulation of the Chinese telecommunications market and ensures more effective regulations over mobile operators for the benefit of the wider community. The most revolutionary step taken by the MII since its establishment was to split the former China Telecom into four independent groups in mid-1999, namely: China Telecom, China Mobile, China Satellite and GuoXin Paging Company. The MII adopted a strategy of ‘vertical separation’ and the former China Telecom was finally split up into these four groups according to specific services. New China Telecom, however, only retained responsibility for fixed network services and China Mobile is specifically dedicated to mobile phone services; China Satellite is into satellite communications while GuoXin Paging Company focuses on radio paging services only. These new operators are financially and operationally independent. The GuoXin Paging Company subsequently merged with China Unicom to enhance China Unicom’s financial strengths. The regulator has paid much attention to the law and ordinance issued in 2000. ‘The Telecommunications Regulation of the People’s Republic of China’ was promulgated by the State Council on September 20, 2000 and came into force on the same day. This regulation become the primary ordinance to cover nearly all aspects of the telecommunications industry, including market admittance, network interlinkage, charges, resources, service, construction and safety. According to the ordinance, mobile network service belongs to basic telecommunications businesses and any potential entrant will be subjected to the examination and approval of the MII under the State Council before it can obtain a business license. However, Chinese government still views the state-owned telecommunications operators as a combination of commercial, social and political cells of the government. Two mobile operators must make profits for the government and also get market protection from the government at the same time. MII not only supervises the whole industry, but also holds the power to appoint, promote or dismiss key officials of China Mobile and China Unicom, and the key to personnel decisions of the two operators are inevitably made beyond the level of their own boards. 4 Evolution mapping and analytical framework 4.1 Evolution mapping As mentioned before, there are three major actors within the actor-networks of China’s mobile telecommunications industry, which are the regulator, the incumbent (China Mobile) and new competitor (China Unicom). Mapping analysis was conducted to explore the interactions among actors in the industry and the linkages of their activities. The researchers focus on specifying each category of player in terms of the conditions of phenomena as to why, how and when; the set of circumstances in which phenomena are embedded; the actions or reactions of actors; and the consequences of the actions or reactions. The mapping chart here consists of two axes. The vertical axis contains the key themes and events of actors that influence the industry evolution process with a layered structure. Horizontal axis represents time. The total time span will cover the industry evolution history up to now (see Figure 2)

The evolution of China's mobile telecommunications industry 123 4.2 Analytical framework From the process mapping, we can see that the interaction among the members of the actor-network has greatly shaped the mobile telecommunications industry today, and will continue to do so in the 3G era The policy design of the industrial structure by the Chinese govemment is captured in the framework. Several policy instruments are adopted to adjust the changing status of the industrial structure. These policy instruments include price regulation that govem installation fees and call costs per minute; standard setting like the decision to introduce GSM and CDMA IS-95A systems; direct administration like appointing top officials of the operators. As to potential entrants, the government decides on the number and the timing of new license issuance The firm,'s behaviour and market performance can also be observed in the framework Under government supervision, we can see that the two state-owned mobile operators tried to react to the fierce competition quickly and proactively. They tried to penetrate the market with flexible tariff, new service and upgraded networks. In turn, the improved services, customised contents and flexible prices(see Figure 3)triggered the purchasing desires of potential customers. The policy design on the competitive market has really stimulated the recent quick growth of the mobile telecommunications industry in China. However, some problems, which need special attention, remain unsolved. For historical reasons, Mll has a deep-rooted and intimate relationship with China Mobile, China Unicom, and other regulated operators. Chinas mobile telecommunications service industry is administration-based. The frequent policy interventions by the government inevitably mean that many uncertainties still exist in the future industry development of this big developing country Figure 3 Industry evolution framework Policy Design Government Standard Industrial structure Industry Grow Market Demand

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