htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 、 WHAT IS ECOLOGY? A definition of ecology Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment environment is a combination of the physical environment( temperature, water availability and any influences on an organism exerted by other organisms-the biotic environment 生态学的定义 生态学是硏究有机体与其环境相互作用的科学。“环境”是物理环境(温度、可利用水等)和 生物环境(对有机体的、来自其他有机体的任何影响)的结合体。 生态学的定义:研究生物与其环境相互关系的科学 内涵:1)环境对生物的决定和塑造作用 2)生物对环境的适应 3)适应环境的生物对环境的改善作用 为什么要开展生态学研究 人类面监的四大危机: (1)环境危机 (2)人口危机 (3)资源危机 (4)能源危机 Individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems There are four identifiable subdivisions of scale which ecologists investigate (i) considering the response of individuals to their environments (ii) Examining the response of populations of a single species to the environment and considering processes such as abundance and fluctuations (iii)The composition and structure of communities( the populations occurring in a defined area) (iv ) the processes occurring within ecosystems(the combination of a community and the abiotic nponents of the environment), such as energy flow, food webs and the cycling of nutrients 个休、种群、群落和生态系统 生态学所研究的有4个可辨别尺度的亚部分: (i)探讨个体对其环境的反应; (i)研究单个物种的种群对于环境的反应,和探讨诸如多度( abundance)及其波动等的过程(i) 群落(出现在确定面积中的种群集合)的组成和结构;(ⅳ)生态系统(群落与环境的非生物 成分的结合)内的各种过程,例如能流、食物网和营养物的循环等 生态学的交叉学科 在生物学内的交叉:生理生态学,生态遗传学,行为生态学, 与自然科学的交叉:数学生态学,化学生态学,… 与人文、经济和社会科学的交叉:经济生态学,社会生态学,政治生态学,人类生态学,民 族生态学,哲学生态学, 生态学的研究方法 14.3生态学研究问题的步骤 TEN RULES IN ECOLOGY? hors experience of teaching ecology has given them experience of some common pitfalls which ecology students often make. This list, designed to counter these pitfalls is neither comprehensive nor mutually exclusive, but we hope will nevertheless serve as a useful guide to
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 一、WHAT IS ECOLOGY? A definition of ecology Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. The ‘environment’ is a combination of the physical environment (temperature, water availability, etc.) and any influences on an organism exerted by other organisms-the biotic environment. 生态学的定义 生态学是研究有机体与其环境相互作用的科学。“环境”是物理环境（温度、可利用水等）和 生物环境（对有机体的、来自其他有机体的任何影响）的结合体。 生态学的定义: 研究生物与其环境相互关系的科学 内涵：1）环境对生物的决定和塑造作用 2）生物对环境的适应 3）适应环境的生物对环境的改善作用 为什么要开展生态学研究 人类面监的四大危机： （1）环境危机 （2）人口危机 （3）资源危机 （4）能源危机 Individuals,populations,communities and ecosystems There are four identifiable subdivisions of scale which ecologists investigate; (i) considering the response of individuals to their environments; (ii) Examining the response of populations of a single species to the environment,and considering processes such as abundance and fluctuations; (iii) The composition and structure of communities (the populations occurring in a defined area); (iv)the processes occurring within ecosystems (the combination of a community and the abiotic components of the environment), such as energy flow, food webs and the cycling of nutrients. 个休、种群、群落和生态系统 生态学所研究的有 4 个可辨别尺度的亚部分： (i)探讨个体对其环境的反应； (ii)研究单个物种的种群对于环境的反应，和探讨诸如多度(abundance)及其波动等的过程（iii） 群落（出现在确定面积中的种群集合）的组成和结构；(iv)生态系统（群落与环境的非生物 成分的结合）内的各种过程，例如能流、食物网和营养物的循环等。 生态学的交叉学科 在生物学内的交叉：生理生态学，生态遗传学，行为生态学，… 与自然科学的交叉：数学生态学，化学生态学，… … 与人文、经济和社会科学的交叉：经济生态学，社会生态学，政治生态学，人类生态学，民 族生态学，哲学生态学，… … 生态学的研究方法 1.4.3 生态学研究问题的步骤 TEN RULES IN ECOLOGY? What are these rules? The authors’ experience of teaching ecology has given them experience of some common pitfalls which ecology students often make. This list, designed to counter these pitfalls, is neither comprehensive nor mutually exclusive, but we hope will nevertheless serve as a useful guide to
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 这些规律是什么? 生态学的授课实践使得本书作者能够觉察到大学生学习生态学时常常陷入的某些一般性错 误。本目录是为克服这些错误而设计的,既不全面,也不互相排斥,但是我们希望它将作为 有用的指南 Rule 1 ecology is a science Ecology is a purely scientific discipline which aims to understand the relationships between organisms and their wider environment. It is important to segregate political and social impacts of ecological understanding from the scientific viewpoint 规律1:生态学是科学 生态学是一门纯科学学科,目标是了解有机体与其广阔环境的相互关系。分清楚科学观点与 生态学知识的政治和社会影响这一件事是十分重要的。 Rule 2 Ecology is only understandable in the light of evolution The huge diversity of organisms, and the wealth of variety in their morphologies, physiologies and behavior are all the result of many millions of years of evolution. Those evolutionary history has left an indelible impression on each and every individual. It is only possible to make sense of the patterns we find today in the light of this evolutionary legacy 规律2:生态学只有按照进化论才可理解 有机体巨大的多样性,以及其形态学、生理学和行为的变异的丰富性,全都是亿万年进化的 结果。这个进化历史对于每一个个体都留下了不能去除的影响。我们今天发现的种种模式, 只有按照进化论的观点才可能有意义。 Rule 3 Nothing happens' for the good of the species A very common misconception is the idea that patterns of behavior in organisms which appear to be costly to an individual occur'for the good of the species. This is absolutely and completely wrong. Natural selection will favor those genes which are passed on to the most offspring, even if these genes may cause a reduction in the species'population size 规律3:“对动物种有利”现象并不存在 对于那些看起来对个体是花费的有机体行为模式,认为其出现是由于“对物种有利”的这种想 法是一个非常普遍的误解。这是绝对和完全错误的。自然选择将会有利于那些传给大多数后 裔的基因,即使这些基因有可能导致物种种群大小的下降 Rule 4 genes and environment are both important The environment an organism finds itself in plays an important role in determining the options open to that individual. The genes which define an organism's makeup are also of fundamental importance. To understand ecology it is important to appreciate the fundamental nature of both of these factors and the fact that they interact 规律4:基因和环境都很重要 有机体自己所处的环境,对于它在开放的各种选择中决定取舍上,具有重要的作用。决定有 权体构造的基因,同样具有根本的重要性。这两方面因素的基本性质及其相互作用,对于理 解生态学都是很重要的 Rule 5 Understanding complexity requires models Ecology is a complex subject, with huge variation at almost every scale-millions of species, each with considerable genetic variation, varying numbers and ever-changing behaviors in a complex and dynamic environment To understand it it is necessary to clearly identify specific questions and then formulate hypotheses which can be tested. It is often very useful to frame the hypothesis
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 protocol. 这些规律是什么？ 生态学的授课实践使得本书作者能够觉察到大学生学习生态学时常常陷入的某些一般性错 误。本目录是为克服这些错误而设计的，既不全面，也不互相排斥，但是我们希望它将作为 有用的指南。 Rule 1 Ecology is a science. Ecology is a purely scientific discipline which aims to understand the relationships between organisms and their wider environment. It is important to segregate political and social impacts of ecological understanding from the scientific viewpoint. 规律 1：生态学是科学 生态学是一门纯科学学科，目标是了解有机体与其广阔环境的相互关系。分清楚科学观点与 生态学知识的政治和社会影响这一件事是十分重要的。 Rule 2 Ecology is only understandable in the light of evolution. The huge diversity of organisms, and the wealth of variety in their morphologies, physiologies and behavior are all the result of many millions of years of evolution. Those evolutionary history has left an indelible impression on each and every individual. It is only possible to make sense of the patterns we find today in the light of this evolutionary legacy. 规律 2：生态学只有按照进化论才可理解 有机体巨大的多样性，以及其形态学、生理学和行为的变异的丰富性，全都是亿万年进化的 结果。这个进化历史对于每一个个体都留下了不能去除的影响。我们今天发现的种种模式， 只有按照进化论的观点才可能有意义。 Rule 3 Nothing happens’ for the good of the species’. A very common misconception is the idea that patterns of behavior in organisms which appear to be costly to an individual occur’ for the good of the species’. This is absolutely and completely wrong. Natural selection will favor those genes which are passed on to the most offspring, even if these genes may cause a reduction in the species’population size. 规律 3：“对动物种有利”现象并不存在 对于那些看起来对个体是花费的有机体行为模式，认为其出现是由于“对物种有利”的这种想 法是一个非常普遍的误解。这是绝对和完全错误的。自然选择将会有利于那些传给大多数后 裔的基因，即使这些基因有可能导致物种种群大小的下降。 Rule 4 Genes and environment are both important. The environment an organism finds itself in plays an important role in determining the options open to that individual. The genes which define an organism’s makeup are also of fundamental importance. To understand ecology it is important to appreciate the fundamental nature of both of these factors and the fact that they interact. 规律 4：基因和环境都很重要 有机体自己所处的环境，对于它在开放的各种选择中决定取舍上，具有重要的作用。决定有 权体构造的基因，同样具有根本的重要性。这两方面因素的基本性质及其相互作用，对于理 解生态学都是很重要的。 Rule 5 Understanding complexity requires models. Ecology is a complex subject, with huge variation at almost every scale-millions of species, each with considerable genetic variation, varying numbers and ever-changing behaviors in a complex and dynamic environment. To understand it,it is necessary to clearly identify specific questions and then formulate hypotheses which can be tested. It is often very useful to frame the hypothesis
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 in mathematical terms to avoid ambiguity and confusion which are often inevitable in a verbal model. Mathematical models are widely used in ecology 规律5:理解复杂性要求模型 生态学是一复杂的对象,几乎每一个尺度都有大量变异——亿万个种,每种有大量基因变异 在复杂和动态的环境中有变化着的数量和随时间而改变的行为。为了理解它,必需清楚的认 明特异问题,然后形成可以检验的假设。以数学的思想方法构造假说常常是很有用的,可以 躲开在语言模型中不能避免的含糊不清和混淆。数学模型在生态学里被广泛的应用 Rule 6 Story-telling is dangerous In attempting to explain ecological patterns or relationships, it is easy to slip into a make-believe world where every observation is readily explained by some ad hoc assertion-'story-telling. The temptation to advance hypotheses as facts should be avoided at all costs 规律6:“讲故事”是危险的 在打算解释生态学种种模式或相互关系的时候,人们很容易滑到虚假世界之中,每一个观察 都很容易的被某特设的断言(所谓的“讲故事”)所解释了。无论如何,总想去推进假设实际 上是应该避免的 Rule 7 There are hierarchies of explanations For any observation there is often an immediate cause that can be diagnosed. Often this causal explanation is insufficiently informative and we need to probe deeper to reach a fuller grasp of the situation. Even if a phenomenon is 'explained there may well be further and deeper explanations which allow us to see the fuller picture 规律7:要有分层次的解释 对于任何观察,常常可以识别出一个直接的原因,但这种因果解释往往是资料不足的,我们 需要进一步探索,以达到更完全的抓住情况。即使是现象已经被“解释”了,更进一步和更深 入的解释也是很好的,它允许我们看见更完全的情景。 Rule 8 There are multiple constraints on organisms Whilst the total diversity of form, function and environmental resilience exhibited by organisms is awe-inspiring, each individual(and, to a slightly lesser extent, each species) operates within a elatively narrow range of constraints. Constraints fundamentally take two forms, (i) physical and (ii) evolutionary. Evolution cab never reach 'perfection because of these constraints and organisms are essentially hotchpotches of numerous compromises 规律8:有机体具有很多限制 有机体表现出来的形态、功能和环境适应力的总多样性是令人惊叹的,每个个体(和每一个 种,但较少程度)则在相对较小的约束范围中运转。约束基本上有两类:(i)物理的,(ⅱ) 进化的。由于这些约束,进化从来就没有达到“完善”过,有机体基本上是许多妥协的杂烩。 Rule 9 Chance is important Chance events play a critical role in ecology. The opening of a gap in a forest canopy or the breaching of a sand dunce after a storm will have a major impact on the ecology of the local fauna and flora, but both are unpredictable in either time or location. The importance of chance events in ecology does not mean ecological patterns are wholly unpredictable, but it necessarily 规律9:机会是重要的 随机事件在生态学中起关键性的作用。林冠中出现林窗或沙丘在风暴后裂口,对于当地动植 物区系将有重要的影响,但是,林窗和裂口出现的时间和地点都是不可预测的。机会的作用 也与有机体过去进化综合在一起。生态学中机会事件的重要性并不意味着生态学中的模式是
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 in mathematical terms to avoid ambiguity and confusion which are often inevitable in a verbal model. Mathematical models are widely used in ecology. 规律 5：理解复杂性要求模型 生态学是一复杂的对象，几乎每一个尺度都有大量变异——亿万个种，每种有大量基因变异， 在复杂和动态的环境中有变化着的数量和随时间而改变的行为。为了理解它，必需清楚的认 明特异问题，然后形成可以检验的假设。以数学的思想方法构造假说常常是很有用的，可以 躲开在语言模型中不能避免的含糊不清和混淆。数学模型在生态学里被广泛的应用。 Rule 6 ‘Story-telling’ is dangerous. In attempting to explain ecological patterns or relationships, it is easy to slip into a make-believe world where every observation is readily explained by some ad hoc assertion – ‘story-telling’. The temptation to advance hypotheses as facts should be avoided at all costs. 规律 6：“讲故事”是危险的 在打算解释生态学种种模式或相互关系的时候，人们很容易滑到虚假世界之中，每一个观察 都很容易的被某特设的断言（所谓的“讲故事”）所解释了。无论如何，总想去推进假设实际 上是应该避免的。 Rule 7 There are hierarchies of explanations. For any observation there is often an immediate cause that can be diagnosed. Often this causal explanation is insufficiently informative and we need to probe deeper to reach a fuller grasp of the situation. Even if a phenomenon is ‘explained’ there may well be further and deeper explanations which allow us to see the fuller picture. 规律 7：要有分层次的解释 对于任何观察，常常可以识别出一个直接的原因，但这种因果解释往往是资料不足的，我们 需要进一步探索，以达到更完全的抓住情况。即使是现象已经被“解释”了，更进一步和更深 入的解释也是很好的，它允许我们看见更完全的情景。 Rule 8 There are multiple constraints on organisms. Whilst the total diversity of form, function and environmental resilience exhibited by organisms is awe-inspiring, each individual (and, to a slightly lesser extent, each species) operates within a relatively narrow range of constraints. Constraints fundamentally take two forms, (i) physical and (ii) evolutionary. Evolution cab never reach ‘perfection’ because of these constraints and organisms are essentially hotchpotches of numerous compromises. 规律 8：有机体具有很多限制 有机体表现出来的形态、功能和环境适应力的总多样性是令人惊叹的，每个个体（和每一个 种，但较少程度）则在相对较小的约束范围中运转。约束基本上有两类：（i）物理的，（ii） 进化的。由于这些约束，进化从来就没有达到“完善”过，有机体基本上是许多妥协的杂烩。 Rule 9 Chance is important. Chance events play a critical role in ecology. The opening of a gap in a forest canopy or the breaching of a sand dunce after a storm will have a major impact on the ecology of the local fauna and flora, but both are unpredictable in either time or location. The importance of chance events in ecology does not mean ecological patterns are wholly unpredictable, but it necessarily places boundaries on the potential level of predictive detail. 规律 9：机会是重要的 随机事件在生态学中起关键性的作用。林冠中出现林窗或沙丘在风暴后裂口，对于当地动植 物区系将有重要的影响，但是，林窗和裂口出现的时间和地点都是不可预测的。机会的作用 也与有机体过去进化综合在一起。生态学中机会事件的重要性并不意味着生态学中的模式是
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 完全不可预测的,但是它必然是位于预言细节的潜在水平之边缘。 Rule 10 There boundaries of ecology are in the mind of the ecologist Ecology is a broad science, covering both organisms and physical environments and hence potentially relevant. Mathematics, chemistry and physics are tools essential to the understanding of ecology 规律10:在生态学家心目中的生态学边界 生态学是一门广泛的科学,覆盖着生物和物理环境,从而作为潜在相关的,很少有被排除在 外的了。数学、化学和物理学都是理解生态学的基本工具。 二、 ADAPTATION Fitness is measure of the ability of an individual to produce viable offspring and contribute to future generations. Individuals vary in their relative fitness, and this variation is due partly to genetic differences among individuals and partly to environmental influences 适合度 适合度是个体生产能存活后代、并能对未来世代有贡献的能力的指标。个体的相对适合度是 有变化的,这种变化部分决定于个体的遗传区别,部分决定于环境的影响。 Any heritable trait possessed by an organism which aids survival or reproduction is an adaptation Such traits may be physiological, morphological or behavioral. Adaptation is the result of natural 适应 有机体所具有的有助于生存和生殖的任何可遗传特征都是适应。适应性特征可以是生理的 形态的或行为的。适应是自然选择的结果 Natural selection The individuals in a species which have the highest fitness will contribute disproportionately to the subsequent generations. If fitness differences have a genetic component, then the genetic ake-up of the subsequent generations will be altered. This process is known as natural selection or 'survival of the fittest 自然选择 种中具有最高适合度的个体将会对未来世代作出特别高的贡献。如果适合度的差别含有遗传 的成分,则后代的遗传组成会有改变。这个过程称为自然选择或“最适者生存”。 Genotype and phenotype The genotype is the genetic composition of an individual. The phenotype is the individual organism,a product of the interaction between its genotype environmental influences on its genotype is known as phenotypic plasticity(e.g. human suntan, wind-shaped plants locust morph ( solitary or migratory)) 基因型和表型 基因型是个体的遗传组成。表型是各个有机体,它是基因型与环境的相互作用的产物。由于 环境对基因型的影响,表型发生变化的能力叫做表型可塑性(如人的晒黑、风造形的植物 蝗虫的单生或群居型)。 COPING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION Variable environmental factors which organisms respond to are conditions. Examples include temperature, acidity and salinity. Conditions are not depletable-they are not used up or consumed
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 完全不可预测的，但是它必然是位于预言细节的潜在水平之边缘。 Rule 10 There boundaries of ecology are in the mind of the ecologist. Ecology is a broad science, covering both organisms and physical environments and hence excludes little as potentially relevant. Mathematics, chemistry and physics are tools essential to the understanding of ecology. 规律 10：在生态学家心目中的生态学边界 生态学是一门广泛的科学，覆盖着生物和物理环境，从而作为潜在相关的，很少有被排除在 外的了。数学、化学和物理学都是理解生态学的基本工具。 二、ADAPTATION Fitness Fitness is measure of the ability of an individual to produce viable offspring and contribute to future generations. Individuals vary in their relative fitness, and this variation is due partly to genetic differences among individuals and partly to environmental influences. 适合度 适合度是个体生产能存活后代、并能对未来世代有贡献的能力的指标。个体的相对适合度是 有变化的，这种变化部分决定于个体的遗传区别，部分决定于环境的影响。 Adaptation Any heritable trait possessed by an organism which aids survival or reproduction is an adaptation. Such traits may be physiological, morphological or behavioral. Adaptation is the result of natural selection. 适应 有机体所具有的有助于生存和生殖的任何可遗传特征都是适应。适应性特征可以是生理的、 形态的或行为的。适应是自然选择的结果。 Natural selection The individuals in a species which have the highest fitness will contribute disproportionately to the subsequent generations. If fitness differences have a genetic component, then the genetic make-up of the subsequent generations will be altered. This process is known as natural selection or ‘survival of the fittest’. 自然选择 种中具有最高适合度的个体将会对未来世代作出特别高的贡献。如果适合度的差别含有遗传 的成分，则后代的遗传组成会有改变。这个过程称为自然选择或“最适者生存”。 Genotype and phenotype The genotype is the genetic composition of an individual. The phenotype is the individual organism, a product of the interaction between its genotype environmental influences on its genotype is known as phenotypic plasticity (e.g. human suntan, wind-shaped plants locust morph (solitary or migratory)). 基因型和表型 基因型是个体的遗传组成。表型是各个有机体，它是基因型与环境的相互作用的产物。由于 环境对基因型的影响，表型发生变化的能力叫做表型可塑性（如人的晒黑、风造形的植物、 蝗虫的单生或群居型）。 三、COPING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION Conditions Variable environmental factors which organisms respond to are conditions. Examples include temperature, acidity and salinity. Conditions are not depletable – they are not used up or consumed
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 by 条件 引起有机体对其反应的、可变的环境因子是条件( conditions),例如温度、酸度和盐度。条 件是不可能被减少的——它不能被有机体用掉或消耗掉 Resources Anything which the organism uses up or depletes is a resource for that organism. Thus, nectar is a resource for honey bees, and light is a resource for all green plants 资源 有机体消耗的任何东西,对该有机体而言,就是资源。例如,蜜是蜜蜂的资源,光是一切绿 色植物的资源 生态因子的相关概念 生态因子:环境要素中对生物起作用的因子 生存条件:生态因子中生物生存不能缺少的生态因子的总称 生态环境:一定区域所有生态因子的总和 生境( habitat):特定生物个体或群体的栖息地的生态环境 生态因子的分类 根据性质划分为: 气候因子:如温度、水分、光照、风、气压和雷电等 土壤因子:如土壤结构、土壤成分的理化性质及土壤生物等 地形因子:如陆地、海洋、海拔高度、山脉的走向与坡度等 生物因子:包括动物、植物和微生物之间的各种相互作用 人为因子:人类活动对自然的破坏及对环境的污染 生态因子的分类 有无生命特征:生物因子和非生物因子 对生物种群数量变动的作用 密度制约因子:食物、天敌等生物因子 非密度制约因子:温度、降水等气候因子 稳定性及其作用特点 稳定因子:终年恒定的因子,决定生物的分布,如地心引力、地磁等 变动因子: 周期性变动因子:一年四季变化和潮汐涨落 非周期性变动因子:如风、降雨、捕食等 生态因子的作用特征 综合作用:生态因子间相互联系、相互影响、相互制约 主导因子作用:生态因子的非等价 作用的阶段性:生物发育的不同阶段,需要不同 不可替代性和补偿性:生态因子间不可替代,但在一定程度上可以补偿 直接作用和间接作用: 直接因子:直接对生物发生影响的生态因子 间接因子:通过影响直接因子而对生物发生影响生态因子 限制因子和限制因子定律 限制因子( limiting factor 限制因子是对生物的生存、生长、繁殖或扩散等起限制作用的因子 当生态因子接近或超过生物的耐受性极限而影响其生存、生长、繁殖或扩散时,这个因子
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 by an organism. 条件 引起有机体对其反应的 、可变的环境因子是条件(conditions)，例如温度、酸度和盐度。条 件是不可能被减少的——它不能被有机体用掉或消耗掉。 Resources Anything which the organism uses up or depletes is a resource for that organism. Thus, nectar is a resource for honey bees, and light is a resource for all green plants. 资源 有机体消耗的任何东西，对该有机体而言，就是资源。例如，蜜是蜜蜂的资源，光是一切绿 色植物的资源。 生态因子的相关概念 生态因子：环境要素中对生物起作用的因子。 生存条件：生态因子中生物生存不能缺少的生态因子的总称。 生态环境：一定区域所有生态因子的总和。 生境（habitat）：特定生物个体或群体的栖息地的生态环境。 生态因子的分类 根据性质划分为： 气候因子：如温度、水分、光照、风、气压和雷电等 土壤因子：如土壤结构、土壤成分的理化性质及土壤生物等 地形因子：如陆地、海洋、海拔高度、山脉的走向与坡度等 生物因子：包括动物、植物和微生物之间的各种相互作用 人为因子：人类活动对自然的破坏及对环境的污染 生态因子的分类 有无生命特征：生物因子和非生物因子 对生物种群数量变动的作用 密度制约因子：食物、天敌等生物因子 非密度制约因子：温度、降水等气候因子 稳定性及其作用特点 稳定因子：终年恒定的因子，决定生物的分布，如地心引力、地磁等 变动因子： 周期性变动因子：一年四季变化和潮汐涨落 非周期性变动因子：如风、降雨、捕食等 生态因子的作用特征 综合作用： 生态因子间相互联系、相互影响、相互制约 主导因子作用：生态因子的非等价 作用的阶段性： 生物发育的不同阶段，需要不同 不可替代性和补偿性：生态因子间不可替代，但在一定程度上可以补偿 直接作用和间接作用： 直接因子：直接对生物发生影响的生态因子 间接因子：通过影响直接因子而对生物发生影响生态因子 限制因子和限制因子定律 限制因子 (limiting factor) -限制因子是对生物的生存、生长、繁殖或扩散等起限制作用的因子 -当生态因子接近或超过生物的耐受性极限而影响其生存、生长、繁殖或扩散时，这个因子
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 成为该生物限制因子 限制因子定律( Law of limiting factor) 生态因子处于低于生物正常生长所需的最小量和高于生物正常生长所需的最大量时,都对 生物具有限制性影响( Blackman,1905 该定律的应用价值-掌握研究生物与环境复杂关系的钥匙 Environmental variation Most organisms have to cope with a continually changing external environment over a range of timescales. Some environmental factors may change over seconds or minutes(e.g sunlight intensity when there is patchy cloud) whilst others may change daily or seasonally or over a much change daily or seasonally or over a much longer period(e.g. glaciation cycles) 环境变异 大多数有机体都必须应付在一定时间尺度范围内不断变化着的外界环境。某些环境因子的变 化以秒或分计(如当有云块时的阳光强度),另一些因子的变化以日或季计,甚至更长更长 的时期(如冰河周期)。 Organisms can cope with variation in their external environment(though different species may differ markedly ) The upper and lower extremes of species limits of tolerance. Usually, growth will not occur at these extremes but in a narrower range of conditions, and fitness will be greatest only for a yet narrower optimal range 耐受性 有机体能够应付其外部环境的变化(虽然不同物质表现很不相同)。种的成员能够生存的环 境条件上限和下限是种的耐受限度。在此极端条件下通常不出现生长,但在条件更狭窄的范 围内能生长,而适合度最大只能出现在更窄的最适范围内 生物对不同生态因子的耐受范围不同,不同年龄、季节、栖息地等同种生物对生态因子的耐 受性不同 对很多生态因子耐受范围都很宽的生物,其分布区一般很广 个体发育的不同阶段,对生态因子的耐受限度不同 不同的生物种,对同一生态因子的耐受性不同 某一生态因子处于非最适状态下时,生物对其他生态因子的耐受限度也下降 Homeostasis The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment by an organism in a variable external environment is called homeostasis, All organisms adopt a degree of homeostatic control but, as true, large organisms are more decoupled from their external environment than small ones 稳态 有机体在可变动的外部环境中维持一个相对恒定的内部环境,称为稳态( homeostasis) 切有机体都采取一定程度的稳态控制,但是一般地说,大型有机体比小型的更易从其外部环 境中退耦( decouple)。 Negative feedback Most biological homeostatic mechanisms act in a broadly similar way: if the current internal level of a factor(e.g. temperature or osmolarity) is too high, the mechanism will reduce it; if the level is too low the mechanism will increase it. This process, by which the response is opposite to the signal, is known as negative feedback 负反馈 大多数生物的稳态机制以大致一样的方式起作用:如果一个因子的内部水平(如温度或渗透
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 成为该生物限制因子 限制因子定律 (Law of limiting factor) -生态因子处于低于生物正常生长所需的最小量和高于生物正常生长所需的最大量时，都对 生物具有限制性影响 (Blackman，1905) 该定律的应用价值---掌握研究生物与环境复杂关系的钥匙 Environmental variation Most organisms have to cope with a continually changing external environment over a range of timescales. Some environmental factors may change over seconds or minutes (e.g. sunlight intensity when .there is patchy cloud) whilst others may change daily or seasonally or over a much change daily or seasonally or over a much longer period (e.g. glaciation cycles). 环境变异 大多数有机体都必须应付在一定时间尺度范围内不断变化着的外界环境。某些环境因子的变 化以秒或分计（如当有云块时的阳光强度），另一些因子的变化以日或季计，甚至更长更长 的时期（如冰河周期）。 tolerance Organisms can cope with variation in their external environment (though different species may differ markedly). The upper and lower extremes of species limits of tolerance. Usually, growth will not occur at these extremes but in a narrower range of conditions, and fitness will be greatest only for a yet narrower optimal range. 耐受性 有机体能够应付其外部环境的变化（虽然不同物质表现很不相同）。种的成员能够生存的环 境条件上限和下限是种的耐受限度。在此极端条件下通常不出现生长，但在条件更狭窄的范 围内能生长，而适合度最大只能出现在更窄的最适范围内。 生物对不同生态因子的耐受范围不同，不同年龄、季节、栖息地等同种生物对生态因子的耐 受性不同 -对很多生态因子耐受范围都很宽的生物，其分布区一般很广 -个体发育的不同阶段，对生态因子的耐受限度不同 -不同的生物种，对同一生态因子的耐受性不同 -某一生态因子处于非最适状态下时，生物对其他生态因子的耐受限度也下降 Homeostasis The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment by an organism in a variable external environment is called homeostasis, All organisms adopt a degree of homeostatic control, but, as true, large organisms are more decoupled from their external environment than small ones. 稳态 有机体在可变动的外部环境中维持一个相对恒定的内部环境，称为稳态（homeostasis）。一 切有机体都采取一定程度的稳态控制，但是一般地说，大型有机体比小型的更易从其外部环 境中退耦（decouple）。 Negative feedback Most biological homeostatic mechanisms act in a broadly similar way: if the current internal level of a factor(e.g.temperature or osmolarity) is too high, the mechanism will reduce it; if the level is too low the mechanism will increase it. This process, by which the response is opposite to the signal, is known as negative feedback. 负反馈 大多数生物的稳态机制以大致一样的方式起作用：如果一个因子的内部水平（如温度或渗透
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 性)太高,该机制将减少它;如果水平太低,就提高它。这个过程叫做负反馈。负反馈反应 的方向与信号的相反 B3 THE NICHE The ecological niche of an organism is the position it fills in its environment, comprising the conditions under which it is found the resources it utilizes and the time it occurs there 生态位 有机体的生态位( niche)是它在它的环境中所处的位置,包括它发现的各种条件、所利用 的资源和在那里的时间。 Multidimensional niche spa Each condition or resource which defines the niche of an organism contributes one dimension to space In which the organisms niche, and is the multidimensional niche space, or'n-dimensional hypervolume 多维生态位空间 定义有机体生态位的每一个条件和资源,对于有机体能出现的空间提供一个维度。一起考虑 所有维度,全面确定的有机体的生态位,是多维生态位空间,或“n-维超体积”。 Fundamental niche The niche space an organism can fill in the absence of competition or predation is known as the fundamental niche 基础生态位 在没竞争和捕食条件下,有机体的生态位空间叫做基础生态位( fundamental niche)。 Realized niche The niche space occupied by an organism when competition and predation occur is the realized niche, which is always a subset of the fundamental niche 实际生态位 当有竞争和捕食出现时,有机体所占有的生态位空间是实际生态位( realized niche),实际 生态位始终是基础生态位的一个子集 四、 SOLAR RADIATION Radiant energy and photosynt Radiant energy is the sole energy source that can be used by green plants. When a leaf intercepts diant energy it may be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. Part of the fraction absorbed reaches the chloroplast, fuelling photosynthesis, the process where radiant energy is used to convert water and Co2 into sugars Solar radiation contains a spectrum of different wavelengths. However, only a restricted band of this spectrum is effective for photosynthesis. This is the band of photosynthetically active radiation(PAR)and for green plants lies between 380 and 710 nm 辐射能和光合作用 绿色植物能够利用的惟一能源是辐射能。当叶子截获辐射能时,它能被吸收、反射或者透射。 吸收的部分能量到达叶绿体,引发了光合作用,在这个过程中,辐射能被用于转化水和二氧 化碳成为糖 太阳辐射包含了不同波长的光谱。然而,仅有一个有限的光谱带对光合作用是有效的。这就 是光合活性辐射(PAR)带,对绿化植物是位于380nm到710nm之间。 Measurement of photosynthesis The rate of photosynthesis is a gross measurement of the rate at which a plant captures radiant
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 性）太高，该机制将减少它；如果水平太低，就提高它。这个过程叫做负反馈。负反馈反应 的方向与信号的相反。 B3 THE NICHE Niche The ecological niche of an organism is the position it fills in its environment, comprising the conditions under which it is found, the resources it utilizes and the time it occurs there. 生态位 有机体的生态位（niche）是它在它的环境中所处的位置，包括它发现的各种条件、所利用 的资源和在那里的时间。 Multidimensional niche space Each condition or resource which defines the niche of an organism contributes one dimension to the space in which the organism’s niche, and is the multidimensional niche space, or’n-dimensional hypervolume’. 多维生态位空间 定义有机体生态位的每一个条件和资源，对于有机体能出现的空间提供一个维度。一起考虑 所有维度，全面确定的有机体的生态位，是多维生态位空间，或“n-维超体积”。 Fundamental niche The niche space an organism can fill in the absence of competition or predation is known as the fundamental niche. 基础生态位 在没竞争和捕食条件下，有机体的生态位空间叫做基础生态位（fundamental niche）。 Realized niche The niche space occupied by an organism when competition and predation occur is the realized niche, which is always a subset of the fundamental niche. 实际生态位 当有竞争和捕食出现时，有机体所占有的生态位空间是实际生态位（realized niche），实际 生态位始终是基础生态位的一个子集。 四、SOLAR RADIATION Radiant energy and photosynthesis Radiant energy is the sole energy source that can be used by green plants. When a leaf intercepts radiant energy it may be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. Part of the fraction absorbed reaches the chloroplast, fuelling photosynthesis, the process where radiant energy is used to convert water and CO2 into sugars. Solar radiation contains a spectrum of different wavelengths. However, only a restricted band of this spectrum is effective for photosynthesis. This is the band of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and for green plants lies between 380 and 710 nm. 辐射能和光合作用 绿色植物能够利用的惟一能源是辐射能。当叶子截获辐射能时，它能被吸收、反射或者透射。 吸收的部分能量到达叶绿体，引发了光合作用，在这个过程中，辐射能被用于转化水和二氧 化碳成为糖。 太阳辐射包含了不同波长的光谱。然而，仅有一个有限的光谱带对光合作用是有效的。这就 是光合活性辐射（PAR）带，对绿化植物是位于 380nm 到 710nm 之间。 Measurement of photosynthesis The rate of photosynthesis is a gross measurement of the rate at which a plant captures radiant
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 rgy and fixes it into carbon compounds. Net assimilation is the difference between photosynthetic assimilation and losses due to respiration. Therefore, not assimilation will negative in the dark and will increase with increasing PAR. The intensity of PAR at which the gain in photosynthesis equals the losses is known as the compensation point 光合作用的测量 光合作用速率是总速率的测量,即植物捕获的辐射能,并把它固定到碳的化合物中。光合作 用净同化是同化量的呼吸的丢失量之差。因此,净同化在黑暗中是负值,并随PRA增加而 增长。在光合作用的同化量等于呼吸消耗量时的PRA强度,称为补偿点( compensation point) 植物的光补偿点示意图( Emberlin,1983) 光补偿点( compensation point光饱和点( (saturate point) 光合作用强度和呼吸作用强度相当处的光强度为光补偿点;当光照强度达到一定水平后,光 合产物不再增加或增加得很少,该处的光强度即为光饱和点 Changes in the intensity of radiation Plants rarely achieve their full photosynthetic potential, due to water shortage and to variation in the intensity of radiation. The systematic variations in light intensity are spatial and tem poral of plar radiation. Less systematic variations in light intensity are caused by the positioning of leaves in relation to each other 辐射强度的变化 植物很难获得它们完全的光合作用潜能,是由于水短缺和辐射强度的改变。光强度的系统变 化是太阳辐射的空间和时间的差异。光强度中极少部分的系统变化是因叶子彼此的相对位置 引起 太阳高度角不同,射程不同,太阳辐射强度不同 C3 and C4 plants A major difference in the photosynthetic capacity of plants is that between C3and C4 plants. C4 plants are able to capture CO2 with greater water use efficiency than C3 plants, but this advantage comes at an energy cost. In C4 plants the rate of photosynthesis increases with light intensity, whilst photosynthesis tails off with increasing light intensity in C3 plants C3和C4植物 植物光合能力中的主要差别是在C3和C4植物之间。C4植物能捕获CO2,伴随着水的 利用效率比C3植物更大,而这优点需要消耗能量。在C4植物中,光合作用率随光强度而 增加,而C3植物随光强度增加光合作用渐渐减小。 Strategic and tactical response of plants to radiation A major strategic difference between plant species in their response to the intensity of radiation is exhibited by sun speciesand shade species, which possess a range of adaptations to high and low light levels, respectively, Also, plants may grow leaves which develop differently under clearly seen in the formation of sun leaves and shade leaves within a leaf canopy of single plan different light conditions as part of a tactical response to the light environment This is m 植物对辐射的战略和战术响应 植物种间对辐射强度反应的主要战略差异显示为“阳地种”和“阴地种”,它们分别具有适应 高的和低的光辐射范围。同样,植物能够在不同光条件下生长不同的叶子,作为对光环境的 部分战术反应。这一点最清楚地在单株植物叶冠内的阳叶和阴叶的结构上看到。 1)阳地植物/阳生植物在强光照下才能正常生长、发育,而在隐蔽条件和弱光条件下生长 不良的植物。如松、杉、杨、柳、麻栎、栓皮栎、桦、槐等。 2)阴地植物/阴生植物:在弱光照下比在强光照下生长良好的植物。如人参、三七、红豆杉
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 energy and fixes it into carbon compounds. Net assimilation is the difference between photosynthetic assimilation and losses due to respiration. Therefore, not assimilation will be negative in the dark and will increase with increasing PAR. The intensity of PAR at which the gain in photosynthesis equals the losses is known as the compensation point. 光合作用的测量 光合作用速率是总速率的测量，即植物捕获的辐射能，并把它固定到碳的化合物中。光合作 用净同化是同化量的呼吸的丢失量之差。因此，净同化在黑暗中是负值，并随 PRA 增加而 增长。在光合作用的同化量等于呼吸消耗量时的 PRA 强度，称为补偿点（compensation point） 植物的光补偿点示意图(Emberlin,1983) 光补偿点 (compensation point)光饱和点(saturate point) 光合作用强度和呼吸作用强度相当处的光强度为光补偿点；当光照强度达到一定水平后，光 合产物不再增加或增加得很少，该处的光强度即为光饱和点。 Changes in the intensity of radiation Plants rarely achieve their full photosynthetic potential, due to water shortage and to variation in the intensity of radiation. The systematic variations in light intensity are spatial and temporal of solar radiation. Less systematic variations in light intensity are caused by the positioning of leaves in relation to each other. 辐射强度的变化 植物很难获得它们完全的光合作用潜能，是由于水短缺和辐射强度的改变。光强度的系统变 化是太阳辐射的空间和时间的差异。光强度中极少部分的系统变化是因叶子彼此的相对位置 引起。 太阳高度角不同，射程不同，太阳辐射强度不同 C3 and C4 plants A major difference in the photosynthetic capacity of plants is that between C3and C4 plants. C4 plants are able to capture CO2 with greater water use efficiency than C3 plants, but this advantage comes at an energy cost. In C4 plants the rate of photosynthesis increases with light intensity, whilst photosynthesis tails off with increasing light intensity in C3 plants. C3 和 C4 植物 植物光合能力中的主要差别是在 C3 和 C4 植物之间。C4 植物能捕获 CO2 ，伴随着水的 利用效率比 C3 植物更大，而这优点需要消耗能量。在 C4 植物中，光合作用率随光强度而 增加，而 C3 植物随光强度增加光合作用渐渐减小。 Strategic and tactical response of plants to radiation A major strategic difference between plant species in their response to the intensity of radiation is exhibited by ‘sun species’ and ‘shade species’, which possess a range of adaptations to high and low light levels, respectively, Also, plants may grow leaves which develop differently under different light conditions as part of a tactical response to the light environment. This is most clearly seen in the formation of sun leaves and shade leaves within a leaf canopy of single plant. 植物对辐射的战略和战术响应 植物种间对辐射强度反应的主要战略差异显示为“阳地种”和“阴地种”，它们分别具有适应于 高的和低的光辐射范围。同样，植物能够在不同光条件下生长不同的叶子，作为对光环境的 部分战术反应。这一点最清楚地在单株植物叶冠内的阳叶和阴叶的结构上看到。 1）阳地植物/阳生植物:在强光照下才能正常生长、发育，而在隐蔽条件和弱光条件下生长 不良的植物。如松、杉、杨、柳、麻栎、栓皮栎、桦、槐等。 2）阴地植物/阴生植物:在弱光照下比在强光照下生长良好的植物。如人参、三七、红豆杉
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 云杉、冷杉、翠云草、半夏、细辛等。 阴地植物与阳地植物对光照强度的适应 光合作用 净生产力 田 田学米 光合作用 吸作用 呼吸作用 光强度 光强度 阳地植物和阴地植物的光补偿点位置示意图( Emberlin,1983) CP为光补偿点 动物对光照强度的适应 有些动物适应于白天的强光照下活动,称为昼行性动物。 因其能忍受的光照范围较广,故又称为广光性动物。 有些动物适应于在夜晚或晨昏的弱光下活动,则称为夜行性动物或晨昏性动物 因其只适应于在狭小的光照范围内活动,所以又称为狭光性动物 生物对光周期的适应 植物的开花结果、落叶及休眠,动物的繁殖、冬眠、迁徙和换毛换羽等,是对日照长短的规 律性变化的反应,称为光周期现象 1、植物的光周期: 2、动物的光周期 1、植物的光周期 根据对日照长度的反应类型可把植物分为 长日照植物:只有当日照长度超过它的临界日长时才能开花的植物,否则,只有营养生长, 没有生殖生长。如冬小麦、大麦、油菜、菠菜、萝卜等。起源于北方 短日照植物:只有当日照长度短于临界日长时才能开花的植物。这类植物通常在早春或深秋 开花。如苍耳、水稻、玉米、大豆、烟草、麻、棉。这类植物通常在早春或深秋开花。起源 于南方。 中日照植物:是指当昼夜长短近于相等时才能开花的植物。如黄瓜、番茄、番薯、四季豆、 蒲公英 中间型植物:这类植物对日照长度的要求不严,只要其他条件合适,在不同的日照长度下都 能开花。 动物的光周期现象 (1)繁殖的光周期现象 长日照动物和短日照动物:在温带和高纬度地区许多鸟兽在春夏之际白昼逐渐延长的 季节繁殖后代,称长日照动物;与些相反,一些动物只有在白昼逐步缩短的秋冬之际才开始 性腺发育和进行繁殖,称短日照动物。前者如雪貂、野兔、刺猬:后者如绵羊、山羊和鹿等。 (2)昆虫滞育的光周期现象:很多昆虫在它们生命周期的正常活动中,能插入一个休眠相
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 云杉、冷杉、翠云草、半夏、细辛等。 阴地植物与阳地植物对光照强度的适应 动物对光照强度的适应 有些动物适应于白天的强光照下活动，称为昼行性动物。 因其能忍受的光照范围较广，故又称为广光性动物。 有些动物适应于在夜晚或晨昏的弱光下活动，则称为夜行性动物或晨昏性动物。 因其只适应于在狭小的光照范围内活动，所以又称为狭光性动物。 生物对光周期的适应 植物的开花结果、落叶及休眠，动物的繁殖、冬眠、迁徙和换毛换羽等，是对日照长短的规 律性变化的反应，称为光周期现象 1、植物的光周期: 2、动物的光周期 1、植物的光周期 根据对日照长度的反应类型可把植物分为： 长日照植物：只有当日照长度超过它的临界日长时才能开花的植物，否则，只有营养生长， 没有生殖生长。如冬小麦、大麦、油菜、菠菜、萝卜等。起源于北方。 短日照植物：只有当日照长度短于临界日长时才能开花的植物。这类植物通常在早春或深秋 开花。如苍耳、水稻、玉米、大豆、烟草、麻、棉。这类植物通常在早春或深秋开花。起源 于南方。 中日照植物：是指当昼夜长短近于相等时才能开花的植物。如黄瓜、番茄、番薯、四季豆、 蒲公英 中间型植物：这类植物对日照长度的要求不严，只要其他条件合适，在不同的日照长度下都 能开花。 动物的光周期现象 （1）繁殖的光周期现象： 长日照动物和短日照动物：在温带和高纬度地区许多鸟兽在春夏之际白昼逐渐延长的 季节繁殖后代，称长日照动物；与些相反，一些动物只有在白昼逐步缩短的秋冬之际才开始 性腺发育和进行繁殖，称短日照动物。前者如雪貂、野兔、刺猬；后者如绵羊、山羊和鹿等。 （2）昆虫滞育的光周期现象：很多昆虫在它们生命周期的正常活动中，能插入一个休眠相
htt/www.cucdecom.cn中国高校课件下载中心 即滞育,常由光周期决定的 (3)换毛与换羽的光周期现象:温带和寒带地区,鸟兽的换毛换羽 (4)动物迁移的光周期现象:鸟类的长距离迁徙,鱼类的回游 五、 TEMPERATURE Ecological Effects of temperature The rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction increases with temperature. The temperature coefficient (Q10)is an index of the effect of a 10C temperature rise on metabolic rate, and is often near 2.0 Within the nonlethal temperature range the most important effect on organism of temperature is likely to be its effect on growth and development 温度的生态作用 酶催化反应的速度随温度而增加(温度系数(Q10)是温度升高10℃对代谢速度影响的指 数,经常大约为20)在非致死温度范围内,温度对生物最大的影响很可能是影响了生长和 发育。 温度与生物生长 三基点”:对应于酶活性的最低、最适和最高温度 不同生物的“三基点不一样 温度与生物发育 有效积温法则 春化 有效积温法则 有效积温法则生物在生长发育过程中必须从环境中摄取一定的热量才能完成某一阶段的发 育,而且植物各个发育阶段所需的总热量是一个常数。 K=(TT0)NT0为物理学0℃—活动积温 K=(TC)NC生物学0℃(发育起点温度)—有效积温 有效积温法则的实际应用 A.预测生物(特别是病虫害)发生的世代数 B.预测生物地理分布的北界; C.预测害虫来年的发生程度 D.推算生物的年发生历 E.根据积温制定农业气候区划,合理安排农业生产 Vernalization and acclimation Temperature may also act as a stimulus, determining whether the organisms will begin development. Vernalization is the induction of flowering by low temperatures. Exposure of an organism to higher(or lower)temperatuer in the laboratory can alter the organisms temperature response. The habituation of an organisms response to changes in laboratory environmental onditions is termed acclimation. Acclimatization is the habituation of an organisms physiological response to changes in natural environmental conditions 春化和驯化 温度能够作为一种刺激物起作用,决定有机体是否将开始发育。舂化法是通过低温诱导开花 有机体在实验室里暴露到较高(或较低)的温度能够改变有机体的温度反应。有机体对实验 环境条件变化产生的适应性反应称为驯化( acclimation)。有机体对自然环境条件变化产生 的生理适应性反应称为气候驯化( acclimatization) Te High temperatures may lead to enzyme inactivation or the unbalancing of components of
http://www.cucdc.com.cn 中国高校课件下载中心 即滞育，常由光周期决定的。 （3）换毛与换羽的光周期现象：温带和寒带地区，鸟兽的换毛换羽 （4）动物迁移的光周期现象：鸟类的长距离迁徙，鱼类的回游 五、TEMPERATURE Ecological Effects of temperature The rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction increases with temperature. The temperature coefficient (Q10) is an index of the effect of a 10℃ temperature rise on metabolic rate, and is often near 2.0. Within the nonlethal temperature range the most important effect on organism of temperature is likely to be its effect on growth and development. 温度的生态作用 酶催化反应的速度随温度而增加（温度系数（Q 10) 是温度升高 10℃对代谢速度影响的指 数，经常大约为 2.0）在非致死温度范围内，温度对生物最大的影响很可能是影响了生长和 发育。 温度与生物生长 -“三基点”：对应于酶活性的最低、最适和最高温度 -不同生物的“三基点”不一样 温度与生物发育 -有效积温法则 -春化 有效积温法则 有效积温法则:生物在生长发育过程中必须从环境中摄取一定的热量才能完成某一阶段的发 育，而且植物各个发育阶段所需的总热量是一个常数。 K=（T-T0）N T0 为物理学 0℃—活动积温 K=（T-C）N C 生物学 0℃（发育起点温度）——有效积温 有效积温法则的实际应用 A. 预测生物（特别是病虫害）发生的世代数； B. 预测生物地理分布的北界； C. 预测害虫来年的发生程度； D. 推算生物的年发生历； E. 根据积温制定农业气候区划，合理安排农业生产 Vernalization and Acclimation Temperature may also act as a stimulus, determining whether the organisms will begin development. Vernalization is the induction of flowering by low temperatures. Exposure of an organism to higher (or lower) temperatuers in the laboratory can alter the organisms temperature response. The habituation of an organism’s response to changes in laboratory environmental conditions is termed acclimation. Acclimatization is the habituation of an organism’s physiological response to changes in natural environmental conditions. 春化和驯化 温度能够作为一种刺激物起作用，决定有机体是否将开始发育。春化法是通过低温诱导开花。 有机体在实验室里暴露到较高（或较低）的温度能够改变有机体的温度反应。有机体对实验 环境条件变化产生的适应性反应称为驯化（acclimation）。有机体对自然环境条件变化产生 的生理适应性反应称为气候驯化（acclimatization）。 Temperature thresholds High temperatures may lead to enzyme inactivation or the unbalancing of components of