STRATEGIES FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Gerald Quirchmayr 1. Introduction Managing information systems today comprises the areas of application development, primarily process deling and data modeling, as well as system introduction, training, maintenance, and the task of coping with vation, meaning the responsibility of keeping the technological basis up to date Developing and running specialised systems, general information systems and open and integrated systems leads to dealing with application domain issues, system security, relevant legal problems and envisaging he use of the system The scope of the system and the information provided by it will of course be largely determined by whether it is an internal system, limited access agency system, or an open system, such as the Internet 2. The Scope of Information Management The organisation of the project team and the realistic analysis of the effect on the operational environment and on higher levels are prerequisites for successful system development and system introduction. The efficient organisation of accompanying measures, especially training, (i.e, training of management, user training and system operation and maintenance training)are also necessary components. The maintainability of the system does to a large extent depend on the available documentation. Procedures for trouble shooting, error correction and permanent adaptation, i. e classical system maintenance must also be taken into account. Coping with innovation today means dealing with ever-shorter hardware life cycles, frequent software updates, conceptual changes and even organisational changes. Information systems management must therefore be viewed as a permanently ongoing management activity comprising design, development, implementation and aintenance of computer supported information systems For building models of processes that can serve as basis for computer supported solutions, functions, data and organisational modules serve as basis. A classification of applications is frequently made according to the following principles Disposition systems for short term, well structured planning support: system for deployment planning for law enforcement forces administrative systems: fast calculators, number crunchers, disposition systems for short term, well-structured planning support: system for deployment for law enforcement forces generation of executive information: prison management systems; auditing support systems for dealing with long term strategies issues: strategic systems on senior management level Purely administratively oriented operative information systems are closely connected to the service itself and output-oriented; tactical and strategic information systems are related to bookkeeping, auditing, financial analysis and are value-oriented. The increasing linkage of these two worlds leads to a need for integrated information systems, called vertical integration
STRATEGIES FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Gerald Quirchmayr 1. Introduction Managing information systems today comprises the areas of application development, primarily process modeling and data modeling, as well as system introduction, training, maintenance, and the task of coping with innovation, meaning the responsibility of keeping the technological basis up to date. Developing and running specialised systems, general information systems and open and integrated systems leads to dealing with application domain issues, system security, relevant legal problems and envisaging the use of the system. The scope of the system and the information provided by it will of course be largely determined by whether it is an internal system, limited access agency system, or an open system, such as the Internet. 2. The Scope of Information Management The organisation of the project team and the realistic analysis of the effect on the operational environment and on higher levels are prerequisites for successful system development and system introduction. The efficient organisation of accompanying measures, especially training, (i.e., training of management, user training and system operation and maintenance training) are also necessary components. The maintainability of the system does to a large extent depend on the available documentation. Procedures for trouble shooting, error correction and permanent adaptation, i.e. classical system maintenance must also be taken into account. Coping with innovation today means dealing with ever-shorter hardware life cycles, frequent software updates, conceptual changes and even organisational changes. Information systems management must therefore be viewed as a permanently ongoing management activity comprising design, development, implementation and maintenance of computer supported information systems. For building models of processes that can serve as basis for computer supported solutions, functions, data and organisational modules serve as basis. A classification of applications is frequently made according to the following principles: C Disposition systems for short term, well structured planning support: system for deployment planning for law enforcement forces; C administrative systems: fast calculators, number crunchers; C disposition systems for short term, well-structured planning support: system for deployment for law enforcement forces; C generation of executive information: prison management systems; C auditing support systems for dealing with long term strategies issues: strategic systems on senior management level Purely administratively oriented operative information systems are closely connected to the service itself and output-oriented; tactical and strategic information systems are related to bookkeeping, auditing, financial analysis and are value-oriented. The increasing linkage of these two worlds leads to a need for integrated information systems, called vertical integration
Functional decomposition was predominant in classical information technology, which focused on the d support of services/production, logistics, distribution bookkeeping and auditing. This resulted in functional Integrated information systems follow a process-oriented view of functions and aim at comprehensive vertical, and horizontal integration. A transparent connection between output and value, an integrated database and process or object-oriented design are the main characteristics of this approach Some reasons why traditional information system development can go wrong are based in classic enterprise theory: a strong split in meaningless sub-tasks, strict hierarchical structures and information technology not being viewed as a potential for innovation. Traditional hierarchical structures are too inflexible, integration and control in this approach needs an enormous size middle management. Customers, in the case of public administration citizens, have higher expectations, are characterised by a aggressive behaviour, and expect personalised service and high flexibility. Products and services must be customised to meet the growing demand for personalised service. This revolution, spurred by information technology, leads to new technology, more flexible tools, and office automation replacing human routine work. The most important change, however, is that the environment in which public administration is operating today is increasingly unstable and permanently changing. The consequences are a need for flexible reaction and a high adaptability of processes 3. Essentials of System Development The essential issues system development has to deal with can be grouped as follows planning and preparation for computerization project management; tem implementation 4. Planning and Preparing for Computerisation 4.1 Responsibility for Planning and Decision-making The benefits of computerisation are achieved more through careful and methodical planning than through the purchase of innovative and expensive computer hardware and software. For that reason, it is important that the decision to computerise, the formulation of policy on computerisation, the planning and management of computerisation, and the coordination of computerisation with other organisational changes are all seen as the responsibility of senior management rather than computer specialists or vendors The level of management which is most appropriate will depend on the nature and scale of the computerisation. In a well-ordered approach, management should take an active role in computerisation for the following reasons To decide on the overall approach to computerisation To decide about the scope and nature of computerisation projects To assure the continued researching of the computerisation projects over a number of years in the face of changing and competing priorities and circumstances; To monitor overall progress and ensure timely, successful completion of projects while remaining within the scope of available resources. Often, policy makers wish to leave the responsibility for computerisation to computer professionals. Management must take the responsibility directly, however 4.2 Need for Planning The benefits to be gained from computerisation are significant. In fact, those who currently using
Functional decomposition was predominant in classical information technology, which focused on the isolated support of services/production, logistics, distribution bookkeeping and auditing. This resulted in functional islands. Integrated information systems follow a process-oriented view of functions and aim at comprehensive, vertical, and horizontal integration. A transparent connection between output and value, an integrated database and process or object-oriented design are the main characteristics of this approach. Some reasons why traditional information system development can go wrong are based in classical enterprise theory: a strong split in meaningless sub-tasks, strict hierarchical structures and information technology not being viewed as a potential for innovation. Traditional hierarchical structures are too inflexible; integration and control in this approach needs an enormous size middle management. Customers, in the case of public administration citizens, have higher expectations, are characterised by a more aggressive behaviour, and expect personalised service and high flexibility. Products and services must be customised to meet the growing demand for personalised service. This revolution, spurred by information technology, leads to new technology, more flexible tools, and office automation replacing human routine work. The most important change, however, is that the environment in which public administration is operating today is increasingly unstable and permanently changing. The consequences are a need for flexible reaction and a high adaptability of processes. 3. Essentials of System Development The essential issues system development has to deal with can be grouped as follows: C planning and preparation for computerization; C project management; C system implementation 4. Planning and Preparing for Computerisation 4.1 Responsibility for Planning and Decision-making The benefits of computerisation are achieved more through careful and methodical planning than through the purchase of innovative and expensive computer hardware and software. For that reason, it is important that the decision to computerise, the formulation of policy on computerisation, the planning and management of computerisation, and the coordination of computerisation with other organisational changes are all seen as the responsibility of senior management rather than computer specialists or vendors. The level of management which is most appropriate will depend on the nature and scale of the computerisation. In a well-ordered approach, management should take an active role in computerisation for the following reasons: C To decide on the overall approach to computerisation; C To decide about the scope and nature of computerisation projects; C To assure the continued researching of the computerisation projects over a number of years in the face of changing and competing priorities and circumstances; C To monitor overall progress and ensure timely, successful completion of projects while remaining within the scope of available resources. Often, policy makers wish to leave the responsibility for computerisation to computer professionals. Management must take the responsibility directly, however. 4.2 Need for Planning The benefits to be gained from computerisation are significant. In fact, those who currently using
computer systems to support their work find it difficult or impossible to operate effectively without them. However the benefits are achieved only if the computerisation process is carefully planned, with the full commitment of The need for a clear plan to guide the development of computerisation exists regardless of the size and complexity of the computer systems proposed; often, significant benefits from computerisation can be achieved with relatively modest investments: a small computer in a busy police office, another to assist with court administration in a busy court, and another to collate statistics at the central statistics office, for example. However unless these individual developments are properly planned in the first instance, the individual systems may not achieve the benefits expected of them. Further, unless these are properly coordinated, the information collected at the police office may not be compatible with the court information or with the statistics system. As a result, future plans to make operational improvements by automating the transfer of information between agencies(or even between offices of the same agency) may prove impossible or unnecessarily expensive. Furthermore, systems introduced in this way may not provide the required scope for later expansion, as new and additional functions are required to be computerised. It follows that benefits from computerisation can be achieved only through realistic and methodical planning and not through the purchase of innovative or expensive computer equipment or software. In any case, the purchase of computer systems must follow the planning stages. For that reason, it is important to focus due attention on the planning and preparation for computerisation. It is also the case that the larger the system, the more careful the planning that is required. Also, the more the proposed computer systems are designed to integrate the work of more than one criminal justice agency, the more complex are the issues which require to be incorporated in the planning stages devel On the negative side there are numerous examples to show what can go seriously wrong if the pment of computerisation is not carefully planned The absence of an overall plan to guide the development of individual computer systems often results in piecemeal developments which are incompatible, information which cannot readily be transferred between systems or combined with information held on other systems, and little or no scope for expansion and Inadequate analysis of the requirements for the computer systems, can lead to systems which do not address the real needs of the criminal justice agency, or which do not tackle the underlying objectives of the agency this may also give rise to systems which do not sit comfortably with the methods or constraints of working in the agency, Inadequate attention to the need to involve users in the planning of the computer systems, can lead both to antipathy on the part of those who are intended to use the system, and to systems which fail to address the real needs of users and the manner in which they work, Inadequate analysis of the methods of working of the agency, and of the underlying objectives and options for alternative working, often leads to computer systems which perpetuate manual methods in situations where different methods of working, combined with new computer systems, would produce more efficient or more Inadequate analysis of the costs and benefits of developing and implementing the computer systems can lead to decisions to proceed with systems which are too costly in relation to the benefits they generate; in some cases, this can result in development being abandoned before the system is completed, because of escalating costs and little evidence of benefits being generated; Inadequate analysis of the costs of running and maintaining the computer systems, can lead to systems which are too costly to operate and which can as a result fall into disuse Inadequate attention to the training needs of staff and users at all levels can lead to inefficient or ineffective use of the system and a failure to meet its design objectives: Inadequate attention to the clerical and administrative procedures associated with running the system, can lead
computer systems to support their work find it difficult or impossible to operate effectively without them. However, the benefits are achieved only if the computerisation process is carefully planned, with the full commitment of management. The need for a clear plan to guide the development of computerisation exists regardless of the size and complexity of the computer systems proposed; often, significant benefits from computerisation can be achieved with relatively modest investments: a small computer in a busy police office, another to assist with court administration in a busy court, and another to collate statistics at the central statistics office, for example. However, unless these individual developments are properly planned in the first instance, the individual systems may not achieve the benefits expected of them. Further, unless these are properly coordinated, the information collected at the police office may not be compatible with the court information or with the statistics system. As a result, future plans to make operational improvements by automating the transfer of information between agencies (or even between offices of the same agency) may prove impossible or unnecessarily expensive. Furthermore, systems introduced in this way may not provide the required scope for later expansion, as new and additional functions are required to be computerised. It follows that benefits from computerisation can be achieved only through realistic and methodical planning and not through the purchase of innovative or expensive computer equipment or software. In any case, the purchase of computer systems must follow the planning stages. For that reason, it is important to focus due attention on the planning and preparation for computerisation. It is also the case that the larger the system, the more careful the planning that is required. Also, the more the proposed computer systems are designed to integrate the work of more than one criminal justice agency, the more complex are the issues which require to be incorporated in the planning stages. On the negative side, there are numerous examples to show what can go seriously wrong if the development of computerisation is not carefully planned: C The absence of an overall plan to guide the development of individual computer systems often results in piecemeal developments which are incompatible, information which cannot readily be transferred between systems or combined with information held on other systems, and little or no scope for expansion and development; C Inadequate analysis of the requirements for the computer systems, can lead to systems which do not address the real needs of the criminal justice agency, or which do not tackle the underlying objectives of the agency; this may also give rise to systems which do not sit comfortably with the methods or constraints of working in the agency; C Inadequate attention to the need to involve users in the planning of the computer systems, can lead both to antipathy on the part of those who are intended to use the system, and to systems which fail to address the real needs of users and the manner in which they work; C Inadequate analysis of the methods of working of the agency, and of the underlying objectives and options for alternative working, often leads to computer systems which perpetuate manual methods in situations where different methods of working, combined with new computer systems, would produce more efficient or more effective results; C Inadequate analysis of the costs and benefits of developing and implementing the computer systems can lead to decisions to proceed with systems which are too costly in relation to the benefits they generate; in some cases, this can result in development being abandoned before the system is completed, because of escalating costs and little evidence of benefits being generated; C Inadequate analysis of the costs of running and maintaining the computer systems, can lead to systems which are too costly to operate and which can as a result fall into disuse; C Inadequate attention to the training needs of staff and users at all levels can lead to inefficient or ineffective use of the system and a failure to meet its design objectives; C Inadequate attention to the clerical and administrative procedures associated with running the system, can lead
to incomplete, inaccurate or out-of-date information, which in extreme cases can lead to users losing confidence in the usefulness of the system, and the system falling into disuse Inadequate attention to the security and confidentiality of the information, can in extreme cases lead to compromises of the justice system and to infringements of privacy Inadequate staff preparation for the implementation of the computer system and its associated changes in procedures can lead to staff antipathy, and in extreme cases, refusal to use the system Attempting to develop systems which are too large and complicated to be managed properly, can lead to slipped deadlines, loss of development staff morale and loss of interest on the part of users operly applied, planning of computerisation will mean that any computer systems that are introduced will generate real benefits, at a cost which can be justified, that they will have scope for future expansion and integration, and that the systems will work according to expectation 4.3 Planning for Computerisation Planning for computerisation is similar to that involved in building a new town or estate; work cannot begin on building individual parts until the overall plan has been prepared and agreed. The overall plan determines how big the overall development will be, where the infrastructural components(which, in the town analogy, would be roads, drainage etc, but in computer terms would be the computer processors, communications links, etc ) will be placed and the number and type of individual buildings to be built. The plan usually also sets a time scale, which shows construction plans and a time line. In computing terms, the overall plan is called a strategy, it exa the objectives of the criminal justice system or agency and identifies those aspects of the work which could usefully be computerised. A strategy also sets out the infrastructure necessary to achieve the proposed computerisation the relative sizes of computer systems required, the communications facilities needed, the number of users requiring access and the relative volumes of work to be undertaken by lanning for computerisation consists of a large number of individual stages or components, as in the town building analogy described above. As with building a new development, the first problem is to find a suitable site, and develop an overall plan for the scale and nature of the development--whether to build a residential housing area or an industrial park, for example. In technical terms, this stage is known as defining the strategy establishing a plan which sets out what objectives are to be met, the extent to which computerisation will be applied, and the broad time scale in which the development will take place. Once the strategy is defined, the remainder of the planning process focuses mainly on building and implementing the component parts of the strategy-buying the right computer hardware, developing or buying appropriate computer software, training the At first sight, the list of tasks involved in planning a computer system can be daunting. In reality, by breaking down the overall task into specific components, it can be seen that each individual part is straightforward and manageable. It follows that since the individual stages are manageable, so is the overall task. As a guide to the components involved in planning for computerisation, one can identify the following typical stages as a guide to what is normally included Setting the scope and direction of computerisation Designing and implementing each individual system Ensuring the security, integrity and satisfactory operation of the computerisation project 4.3.1 Stages Associated with Setting the Scope and Direction of Computerisation I. Deciding responsibility for managing the strategy study and for setting the policy on the scale and scope of computerisation, I. Undertaking an analysis of the needs of the organisation(s) and preparing a detailed overall plan for computerisation which tackle the needs
to incomplete, inaccurate or out-of-date information, which in extreme cases can lead to users losing confidence in the usefulness of the system, and the system falling into disuse; C Inadequate attention to the security and confidentiality of the information, can in extreme cases lead to compromises of the justice system and to infringements of privacy; C Inadequate staff preparation for the implementation of the computer system and its associated changes in procedures can lead to staff antipathy, and in extreme cases, refusal to use the system; C Attempting to develop systems which are too large and complicated to be managed properly, can lead to slipped deadlines, loss of development staff morale and loss of interest on the part of users. Properly applied, planning of computerisation will mean that any computer systems that are introduced will generate real benefits, at a cost which can be justified, that they will have scope for future expansion and integration, and that the systems will work according to expectation. 4.3 Planning for Computerisation Planning for computerisation is similar to that involved in building a new town or estate; work cannot begin on building individual parts until the overall plan has been prepared and agreed. The overall plan determines how big the overall development will be, where the infrastructural components (which, in the town analogy, would be roads, drainage etc., but in computer terms would be the computer processors, communications links, etc.) will be placed and the number and type of individual buildings to be built. The plan usually also sets a time scale, which shows construction plans and a time line. In computing terms, the overall plan is called a strategy; it examines the objectives of the criminal justice system or agency and identifies those aspects of the work which could usefully be computerised. A strategy also sets out the infrastructure necessary to achieve the proposed computerisation - the relative sizes of computer systems required, the communications facilities needed, the number of users requiring access and the relative volumes of work to be undertaken by each. Planning for computerisation consists of a large number of individual stages or components, as in the town building analogy described above. As with building a new development, the first problem is to find a suitable site, and develop an overall plan for the scale and nature of the development--whether to build a residential housing area or an industrial park, for example. In technical terms, this stage is known as defining the strategy-- establishing a plan which sets out what objectives are to be met, the extent to which computerisation will be applied, and the broad time scale in which the development will take place. Once the strategy is defined, the remainder of the planning process focuses mainly on building and implementing the component parts of the strategy - buying the right computer hardware, developing or buying appropriate computer software, training the users how to use the system, etc. At first sight, the list of tasks involved in planning a computer system can be daunting. In reality, by breaking down the overall task into specific components, it can be seen that each individual part is straightforward and manageable. It follows that since the individual stages are manageable, so is the overall task. As a guide to the components involved in planning for computerisation, one can identify the following typical stages as a guide to what is normally included: C Setting the scope and direction of computerisation; C Designing and implementing each individual system; C Ensuring the security, integrity and satisfactory operation of the computerisation project. 4.3.1 Stages Associated with Setting the Scope and Direction of Computerisation I. Deciding responsibility for managing the strategy study and for setting the policy on the scale and scope of computerisation; I. Undertaking an analysis of the needs of the organisation(s) and preparing a detailed overall plan for computerisation which tackle the needs;
I. Within the overall plan, deciding what to computerise, and how to tackle each project, Deciding priorities between competing systems for development or implementation 4.3.2 Within the overall plan stages involved in designing and implementing each individual system I. Setting up a project management structure, to take responsibility for ensuring that the proposed computerisation project is completed on time, within budget, and achieves the objectives set for it, and to provide a mechanism for users to influence and guide the development of the computerisation I. Involving the users in developing the plans for computerisation L. Confirming the feasibility of the project; I. Analysing the requirements, to find out precisely what the computer system has to do, what information it requires to hold and what screen and report layouts are required I. Setting data standards, I. Breaking down the project into manageable stages, and analysing for each stage the time required to complete it and the resources needed for it; I. Deciding how best to implement the proposed system- whether to utilise an existing system from another agency, for example, or to develop a new system from scratch, I. Deciding what computer hardware (if any) needs to purchased, and planning and implementing the procurement procedures as necessary Developing the system, where necessary, or modifying an existing system to meet the specific needs of the organisation Piloting the system as necessary to check that it works satisfactorily and to enab ble users to familiarise hemselves with the system and to refine their requirements I. Testing the system, both to ensure that it w orrectly under all test conditions and that the users satisfy themselves that it operates correctly under operational conditions I. Implementing the system, by installing it on the computer hardware, planning the changeover from manual to automated working, and ensuring that the automated system works reliably enough to replace the manual methods Training the users in the use of the system I. Preparing and issuing documentation to assist users in the use of the system, as well as to provide technical guidance to the computer staff who will maintain and support the system, and training materials to the staff who will train users in its use I. Planning and implementing the transfer of data from existing manual (or automated )records to the new ystem I. Evaluating the extent to which the completed system meets its design objectives, and subsequently monitoring its continued achievement of them 4.3.3 Stages Involved in Ensuring the Security, Integrity and Satisfactory Operation of the Computerisation L. Preparing procedures for checking information quality, and for ensuring that quality standards are held within pre-defined limits Planning for the physical security of the computer system and the information held on it;
I. Within the overall plan, deciding what to computerise, and how to tackle each project; I. Deciding priorities between competing systems for development or implementation; 4.3.2 Within the overall plan stages involved in designing and implementing each individual system I. Setting up a project management structure, to take responsibility for ensuring that the proposed computerisation project is completed on time, within budget, and achieves the objectives set for it, and to provide a mechanism for users to influence and guide the development of the computerisation; I. Involving the users in developing the plans for computerisation; I. Confirming the feasibility of the project; I. Analysing the requirements, to find out precisely what the computer system has to do, what information it requires to hold, and what screen and report layouts are required; I. Setting data standards; I. Breaking down the project into manageable stages, and analysing for each stage the time required to complete it and the resources needed for it; I. Deciding how best to implement the proposed system - whether to utilise an existing system from another agency, for example, or to develop a new system from scratch; I. Deciding what computer hardware (if any) needs to purchased, and planning and implementing the procurement procedures as necessary; I. Developing the system, where necessary, or modifying an existing system to meet the specific needs of the organisation; I. Piloting the system as necessary to check that it works satisfactorily and to enable users to familiarise themselves with the system and to refine their requirements; I. Testing the system, both to ensure that it works correctly under all test conditions and that the users satisfy themselves that it operates correctly under normal operational conditions; I. Implementing the system, by installing it on the computer hardware, planning the changeover from manual to automated working, and ensuring that the automated system works reliably enough to replace the manual methods; I. Training the users in the use of the system; I. Preparing and issuing documentation to assist users in the use of the system, as well as to provide technical guidance to the computer staff who will maintain and support the system, and training materials to the staff who will train users in its use; I. Planning and implementing the transfer of data from existing manual (or automated) records to the new system; I. Evaluating the extent to which the completed system meets its design objectives, and subsequently monitoring its continued achievement of them. 4.3.3 Stages Involved in Ensuring the Security, Integrity and Satisfactory Operation of the Computerisation Project I. Preparing procedures for checking information quality, and for ensuring that quality standards are held within pre-defined limits; I. Planning for the physical security of the computer system and the information held on it;
I. Planning for the eventuality of major disasters affecting the computer system(i. e, fire, flood or malicious action L. Planning and preparing procedures to ensure that all requirements of data protection are met I. Planning the on-going support and development of the system I. Setting and maintaining standards to define the layout and interpretation of all items of information held the computer system The exact content of the components in the above list may change slightly from one situation to another but will rarely deviate markedly from the overall pattern. Further, it should be that many of the tasks involved in planning and implementing computer systems run concurrently and that the list as presented does not therefore represent a strict chronological sequence mayor For many of these stages, there are purpose-designed formal methodologies to assist with their completion, which are the product of commercial companies and can be relatively expensive, due to user-fees. There are however, several public-domain methodologies which are available for free use: In some cases, the development of a number of public-domain methodologies has been funded by national government to encourage the use of professional approaches to computer development in the public and private sectors. The methodologies developed as a result of such initiatives are of high quality, and because of their widespread and increasing use, manufacturers and systems designers in the computer industry become well acquainted with their application, and are working to universalize standards and definitions. Furthermore, there are many automated aids to assist with their use computer based systems which handle much of the administration and monitoring of computer system development, as well as of the analysis and design of computer systems above e t is not the purpose of this section to provide detailed guidance on how to tackle each of the stages listed of the resources required and of the importance of each stage to the overall computerisation initiative. In som cases, alternative ways of tackling each stage are identified, with some guidance on how to decide between these options in practice 5. Detailed Implementation of computerisation 5.1 Setting up a Project Management Structure Each computerisation project identified in the computerisation strategy requires the formation of a project management group to take responsibility for its management and completion. The membership of this group will vary, depending on the importance and scale of the computerisation project-the most senior managers of the organisation for the most significant projects, and local or junior managers for small-scale or less significant projects. In each case, however, the management group comprises managers, not technicians or computer experts their remit is to make decisions about the requirements for the project, commission the development work, ensure the work proceeds according to plan, and to ensure that the final system meets the requirements which were set for it. In this context, the responsibilities of the project management group are the same as if the project had been to plan and implement a new organisational structure, or to plan a move of the agency to new offices; the project is essentially one which affects the operation of the agency, and the fact that it involves computers is a secondary It should be noted that the project management group does not develop the computer system itself, nor is it required to know anything about how computers work or how they can be programmed. For these technical aspects of the project, the project management group will appoint a project leader, to take technical responsibility for designing and implementing the proposed system to meet the requirements of the project management group The project leader will normally be allocated staff and other resources, for the management of which he will have delegated authority. The project leader will report to the project management board-to account for his use of resources, and to provide reports to show the progress made on the project
I. Planning for the eventuality of major disasters affecting the computer system (i.e., fire, flood or malicious action); I. Planning and preparing procedures to ensure that all requirements of data protection are met; I. Planning the on-going support and development of the system; I. Setting and maintaining standards to define the layout and interpretation of all items of information held in the computer system. The exact content of the components in the above list may change slightly from one situation to another but will rarely deviate markedly from the overall pattern. Further, it should be noted that many of the tasks involved in planning and implementing computer systems run concurrently and that the list as presented does not therefore represent a strict chronological sequence. For many of these stages, there are purpose-designed formal methodologies to assist with their completion; many of which are the product of commercial companies and can be relatively expensive, due to user-fees. There are however, several public-domain methodologies which are available for free use: In some cases, the development of a number of public-domain methodologies has been funded by national government to encourage the use of professional approaches to computer development in the public and private sectors. The methodologies developed as a result of such initiatives are of high quality, and because of their widespread and increasing use, manufacturers and systems designers in the computer industry become well acquainted with their application, and are working to universalize standards and definitions. Furthermore, there are many automated aids to assist with their use: computer based systems which handle much of the administration and monitoring of computer system development, as well as of the analysis and design of computer systems. It is not the purpose of this section to provide detailed guidance on how to tackle each of the stages listed above. Rather, a brief description of what is involved in each stage is given in order to provide a broad indication of the resources required and of the importance of each stage to the overall computerisation initiative. In some cases, alternative ways of tackling each stage are identified, with some guidance on how to decide between these options in practice. 5. Detailed Implementation of Computerisation 5.1 Setting up a Project Management Structure Each computerisation project identified in the computerisation strategy requires the formation of a project management group to take responsibility for its management and completion. The membership of this group will vary, depending on the importance and scale of the computerisation project - the most senior managers of the organisation for the most significant projects, and local or junior managers for small-scale or less significant projects. In each case, however, the management group comprises managers, not technicians or computer experts; their remit is to make decisions about the requirements for the project, commission the development work, ensure the work proceeds according to plan, and to ensure that the final system meets the requirements which were set for it. In this context, the responsibilities of the project management group are the same as if the project had been to plan and implement a new organisational structure, or to plan a move of the agency to new offices; the project is essentially one which affects the operation of the agency, and the fact that it involves computers is a secondary issue. It should be noted that the project management group does not develop the computer system itself, nor is it required to know anything about how computers work or how they can be programmed. For these technical aspects of the project, the project management group will appoint a project leader, to take technical responsibility for designing and implementing the proposed system to meet the requirements of the project management group. The project leader will normally be allocated staff and other resources, for the management of which he will have delegated authority. The project leader will report to the project management board - to account for his use of resources, and to provide reports to show the progress made on the project
To be effective, the project management group involved in managing projects should be small-usuall no more than six people and preferably three or four. It should be chaired by a senior manager either from the user department or agency, or from another part of the organisation which is not directly involved in the project itself. The argument for the latter option is that the chairman should be neutral, but should have a clear grasp of the overall business objectives of the criminal justice system(or of the agency, if it is an agency system), and of the overall computerisation strategy. If the chairman is drawn from the user department directly, there is some risk that he or she will be less impartial between the views of the users' representative on the project group and those of the technical representative In addition to the project management group and the technical team of staff engaged in the project work itself, there may also be one or more ad-hoc quality review teams. These teams, often consisting of just one person, are required because it is an important feature of project management methods that all stages of a project are independently reviewed by appropriate specialists to ensure consistent quality standards. The quality review teams must therefore be drawn from other staff, not engaged in the project team, or may sometimes be consultant staff from external sources. They may be drawn, for example, from a team of users to check the quality of the screen layouts and report formats, or an independent communications adviser to review the proposals for the communications aspects of the system Formal methodologies exist for managing computer projects, and some of these are public-domain oducts which can be used without payment of royalties. These methodologies are documented in numerous books nd consultancy and training services in their use are readily available Too often, however, project management is seen only in very limited terms, such as the preparation of critical path diagrams to show how the different stages of a project are inter-related and need to be scheduled, or charts to show the allocation of resources throughout each stage of a project. Project managers can fall into the trap of thinking that the purchase and use of project management software(of which there are many, largely inexpensive, examples on the market) will suffice. Although these are important tools in the process of project management, in the same way as a hammer is an important tool in house building, it is important to recognise that they do not themselves constitute project management any more than a hammer can be regarded as a house builder Project management is what the senior managers on the Project Management Group do to ensure that the project is completed on time, within budget, and that the resulting system does what it is required to do. a project anagement methodology is a formal set of procedures which the project management group can(and should)use to assist with the task of project management. It should include quality control functions to ensure that at all stages, the products generated by the project meet the appropriate standards as defined by the users' requirements, the business objectives of the organisation and the professional and technical standards defined for the technical development staff. A project management methodology is relatively complex, though it is essentially no more than a set of measures to ensure that the project is completed satisfactorily. The precise mix of tools and procedures varies from one project management methodology to another. Annex G provides an outline of the steps involved in a typical system. It should be recognised that no project management methodology can satisfactorily be taken directly out of a textbook or from a set of instructions. Effort does need to be committed to training project managers, as well as the staff on the project who will be managed by the methodology 5.2 Involving Staff in the Development Any project to introduce computerisation to an organisation, regardless of the scale of the undertaking has a profound effect on the staff of the organisation and on the way in which the organisation functions. Equally mportant, if the computerisation is to have a beneficial effect, the value of involving staff in the decision-making process should be recognised. Staff will be affected by the changes to the organisation which the computerisation will generate, and they are able to contribute to decisions about the design and use of the proposed computer stems Overlooking these elements can have serious repercussions, and could jeopardise the success of the computerisation project itself. Failure to keep staff abreast of what is happening in the organisation can result in taff apprehension, fear about job security, confusion as to the nature of the work, and eventual resistance to the implementation of the new system
To be effective, the project management group involved in managing projects should be small - usually no more than six people and preferably three or four. It should be chaired by a senior manager either from the user department or agency, or from another part of the organisation which is not directly involved in the project itself. The argument for the latter option is that the chairman should be neutral, but should have a clear grasp of the overall business objectives of the criminal justice system (or of the agency, if it is an agency system), and of the overall computerisation strategy. If the chairman is drawn from the user department directly, there is some risk that he or she will be less impartial between the views of the users’ representative on the project group and those of the technical representative. In addition to the project management group and the technical team of staff engaged in the project work itself, there may also be one or more ad-hoc quality review teams. These teams, often consisting of just one person, are required because it is an important feature of project management methods that all stages of a project are independently reviewed by appropriate specialists to ensure consistent quality standards. The quality review teams must therefore be drawn from other staff, not engaged in the project team, or may sometimes be consultant staff from external sources. They may be drawn, for example, from a team of users to check the quality of the screen layouts and report formats, or an independent communications adviser to review the proposals for the communications aspects of the system. Formal methodologies exist for managing computer projects, and some of these are public-domain products which can be used without payment of royalties. These methodologies are documented in numerous books, and consultancy and training services in their use are readily available. Too often, however, project management is seen only in very limited terms, such as the preparation of critical path diagrams to show how the different stages of a project are inter-related and need to be scheduled, or charts to show the allocation of resources throughout each stage of a project. Project managers can fall into the trap of thinking that the purchase and use of project management software (of which there are many, largely inexpensive, examples on the market) will suffice. Although these are important tools in the process of project management, in the same way as a hammer is an important tool in house building, it is important to recognise that they do not themselves constitute project management any more than a hammer can be regarded as a house builder. Project management is what the senior managers on the Project Management Group do to ensure that the project is completed on time, within budget, and that the resulting system does what it is required to do. A project management methodology is a formal set of procedures which the project management group can (and should) use to assist with the task of project management. It should include quality control functions to ensure that at all stages, the products generated by the project meet the appropriate standards as defined by the users' requirements, the business objectives of the organisation and the professional and technical standards defined for the technical development staff. A project management methodology is relatively complex, though it is essentially no more than a set of measures to ensure that the project is completed satisfactorily. The precise mix of tools and procedures varies from one project management methodology to another. Annex G provides an outline of the steps involved in a typical system. It should be recognised that no project management methodology can satisfactorily be taken directly out of a textbook or from a set of instructions. Effort does need to be committed to training project managers, as well as the staff on the project who will be managed by the methodology. 5.2 Involving Staff in the Development Any project to introduce computerisation to an organisation, regardless of the scale of the undertaking, has a profound effect on the staff of the organisation and on the way in which the organisation functions. Equally important, if the computerisation is to have a beneficial effect, the value of involving staff in the decision-making process should be recognised. Staff will be affected by the changes to the organisation which the computerisation will generate, and they are able to contribute to decisions about the design and use of the proposed computer systems. Overlooking these elements can have serious repercussions, and could jeopardise the success of the computerisation project itself. Failure to keep staff abreast of what is happening in the organisation can result in staff apprehension, fear about job security, confusion as to the nature of the work, and eventual resistance to the implementation of the new system
Syste Staff members are often the most fruitful source of knowledge of how the organisation functions on a daily a failure to recognise the potential for staff to develop an enthusiasm to embrace new, more efficient ms in the workplace. Planners of computerisation should therefore Keep staff informed of what is happening, prepare them for the changes which computerisation will bring, and train the staff to use the computer systems to best effect Involve the staff to make best use of their knowledge and skills, to assist with the design and implementation of the computer systems, and to develop the operational procedures within which the computers will be used 5.3 Feasibility of Projects The first stage of any project is to determine whether or not the costs of the proposed computer system can be justified, and to identify and evaluate the options for completing it. This takes the form of a feasibility study the outcome of which is a detailed report setting out the overall requirements of the system, the options available for meeting these requirements, the costs of implementing each option, and the anticipated benefits arising from it. The purpose of the feasibility study is to answer three basic questions I. Can a computer system meet the needs as identified? II. If so, how should the computer system be designed and configured Ill. Do the benefits arising from the implementation of the system outweigh the costs? At the end of a feasibility study, there should be a clear indication as to whether the project should or not, and the approximate costs of implementing the system should be known. This study provides the broad cost estimates for budgetary purposes, particularly in criminal justice agencies where budgets have to be planned at least one year in advance, and often more than three years Feasibility studies should not be lengthy, nor should they require extensive resources, considering that the project will already be part of the strategy definition. The actual resources required will depend on the size and complexity of the proposed system-not only because a complex system will require closer examination in order to identify the extent of the complexity, but also because it is clearly worth spending more time and resources on ensuring the correct decision with systems which are likely to be expensive. As a general guideline, the cost of a feasibility study should not exceed 5-10% of the total cost of the proposed system for which the study is undertaken In many governmental organisations, budget authorities may require the production of a feasibility study showing a positive rate of return on investment before funding for the system is approved. If it appears that implementation costs outweigh the benefits, the system design should be modified and reanalysed. It is important to note that the benefits of computer systems, particularly of those in criminal justice, cannot always be measured in monetary terms. The benefits of criminal history systems, for example, arise partly through savings in staff time making information available more rapidly), partly through improvements in productivity(by enabling higher percentage clear-up rates on criminal investigations), but also by the systems effect on public attitudes to crime and law enforcement(many citizens would place high value on removing criminals from the street ). In such cases,the quantifiable benefits should be identified and calculated, and the remaining subjective benefits should then be identified and compared with the balance of the system costs, a decision to proceed with the system can then be made In the particular context of criminal justice, it should also be kept in mind that because of the independent funding of different criminal justice agencies, it may not always be possible to transfer savings between agencies Thus it may not be possible to justify a computer system for the courts on the basis of savings made by the law enforcement agency, unless a broad view is taken of the funding of the overall criminal justice system
Staff members are often the most fruitful source of knowledge of how the organisation functions on a daily level, and a failure to recognise the potential for staff to develop an enthusiasm to embrace new, more efficient systems in the workplace. Planners of computerisation should therefore: C Keep staff informed of what is happening, prepare them for the changes which computerisation will bring, and train the staff to use the computer systems to best effect; C Involve the staff to make best use of their knowledge and skills, to assist with the design and implementation of the computer systems, and to develop the operational procedures within which the computers will be used. 5.3 Feasibility of Projects The first stage of any project is to determine whether or not the costs of the proposed computer system can be justified, and to identify and evaluate the options for completing it. This takes the form of a feasibility study, the outcome of which is a detailed report setting out the overall requirements of the system, the options available for meeting these requirements, the costs of implementing each option, and the anticipated benefits arising from it. The purpose of the feasibility study is to answer three basic questions: I. Can a computer system meet the needs as identified? II. If so, how should the computer system be designed and configured? III. Do the benefits arising from the implementation of the system outweigh the costs? At the end of a feasibility study, there should be a clear indication as to whether the project should proceed or not, and the approximate costs of implementing the system should be known. This study provides the broad cost estimates for budgetary purposes, particularly in criminal justice agencies where budgets have to be planned at least one year in advance, and often more than three years. Feasibility studies should not be lengthy, nor should they require extensive resources, considering that the project will already be part of the strategy definition. The actual resources required will depend on the size and complexity of the proposed system - not only because a complex system will require closer examination in order to identify the extent of the complexity, but also because it is clearly worth spending more time and resources on ensuring the correct decision with systems which are likely to be expensive. As a general guideline, the cost of a feasibility study should not exceed 5-10% of the total cost of the proposed system for which the study is undertaken. In many governmental organisations, budget authorities may require the production of a feasibility study showing a positive rate of return on investment before funding for the system is approved. If it appears that implementation costs outweigh the benefits, the system design should be modified and reanalysed. It is important to note that the benefits of computer systems, particularly of those in criminal justice, cannot always be measured in monetary terms. The benefits of criminal history systems, for example, arise partly through savings in staff time (by making information available more rapidly), partly through improvements in productivity (by enabling higher percentage clear-up rates on criminal investigations), but also by the system’s effect on public attitudes to crime and law enforcement (many citizens would place high value on removing criminals from the street). In such cases, the quantifiable benefits should be identified and calculated, and the remaining subjective benefits should then be identified and compared with the balance of the system costs; a decision to proceed with the system can then be made. In the particular context of criminal justice, it should also be kept in mind that because of the independent funding of different criminal justice agencies, it may not always be possible to transfer savings between agencies. Thus it may not be possible to justify a computer system for the courts on the basis of savings made by the law enforcement agency, unless a broad view is taken of the funding of the overall criminal justice system
5.4 Defining the Project stages Every project should be broken down into a number of manageable stages. Because there are no milestones along the way by which to judge the progress being made, projects can be difficult to manage without them. The size and definition of each stage will depend on the project itself, though as a general rule, each stage hould. L. Be of less than six-months duration Have well-defined resources allocated to it(covering specialist technical resources, resources provided by the user,and other resources, such as trainers, which may be necessary) I. Have clearly defined objectives and specific end-products(e.g. completed programs, training manuals, numbers of people trained) . Have specific roles for each participant in the stage-(e.g. that the office manager will prepare the user manuals for the office staff 1. Have a clearly nominated stage manager for each stage, who is given authority by the management group for the project to use the resources allocated to the stage to complete the work defined within it; I. Have clearly defined rules which define the limits of the stage managers authority. For example, if at any point it becomes clear that the cost of the stage will be more than 5% above the agreed level, the stage manager must report back to the management group 1. Have meetings at designated stages in development. An initial project plan should show the overall costs, timescale and end products expected from the entire project, broken down into individual stages. Each stage can then be managed individually, and any over-or und use of resources in any stage can be examined in relation to its impact on the overall project 5.5 Analysing Requirements If the decision is made to proceed with the project, the first stage is to analyse the requirements in detail nd to document these clearly. There are three purposes in this To ensure that the requirements for the system are fully understood by the technical staff undertaking the analysis and the user staff alike, and that any inconsistencies or deficiencies in the definitions of requirements are identified and clarified I. To provide clear feedback to the users who have requested the system, to ensure that they fully understand the requirements that have been stated and fully agree with the analysts' interpretation of them L. To enable users to contribute to the design of the computer system There are numerous methodologies for analysing and documenting the requirements, each of which uses one or more analysis or diagraming techniques. It is important, however, to ensure that the methodology in use incorporates at least two, and preferably three separate techniques. The reason for this is best seen by drawing an analogy with the plans for a house: An architect will normally prepare three sets of drawings for a house-plan, side elevation and front elevation. Together, these show the detail of what the architect has interpreted as hi client's requirements. They enable a three-dimensional model of the house to be built. The three diagrams also assist by identify ing and eliminating any inconsistencies-for example, that the floor levels are correct or that stairways are in the correct place, since the three sets of diagrams must match in every detail. So it is in the analysis of computer systems. Different diagram techniques give different views of the system, but no matter which techniques are used, they must all be consistent with each other. If they are not, there are errors in the underlying analysis or in the interpretation of requirements. If only one or two methods are used, inconsistencies cannot be readily identified, and this can lead to expensive mistakes later on, when the system is being constructed
5.4 Defining the Project Stages Every project should be broken down into a number of manageable stages. Because there are no milestones along the way by which to judge the progress being made, projects can be difficult to manage without them. The size and definition of each stage will depend on the project itself, though as a general rule, each stage should: I. Be of less than six-months duration; I. Have well-defined resources allocated to it (covering specialist technical resources, resources provided by the user, and other resources, such as trainers, which may be necessary); I. Have clearly defined objectives and specific end-products (e.g. completed programs, training manuals, numbers of people trained); I. Have specific roles for each participant in the stage - (e.g. that the office manager will prepare the user manuals for the office staff); I. Have a clearly nominated stage manager for each stage, who is given authority by the management group for the project to use the resources allocated to the stage to complete the work defined within it; I. Have clearly defined rules which define the limits of the stage manager's authority. For example, if at any point it becomes clear that the cost of the stage will be more than 5% above the agreed level, the stage manager must report back to the management group; I. Have meetings at designated stages in development. An initial project plan should show the overall costs, timescale and end products expected from the entire project, broken down into individual stages. Each stage can then be managed individually, and any over- or underuse of resources in any stage can be examined in relation to its impact on the overall project. 5.5 Analysing Requirements If the decision is made to proceed with the project, the first stage is to analyse the requirements in detail and to document these clearly. There are three purposes in this: I. To ensure that the requirements for the system are fully understood by the technical staff undertaking the analysis and the user staff alike, and that any inconsistencies or deficiencies in the definitions of requirements are identified and clarified; I. To provide clear feedback to the users who have requested the system, to ensure that they fully understand the requirements that have been stated and fully agree with the analysts' interpretation of them; I. To enable users to contribute to the design of the computer system. There are numerous methodologies for analysing and documenting the requirements, each of which uses one or more analysis or diagraming techniques. It is important, however, to ensure that the methodology in use incorporates at least two, and preferably three separate techniques. The reason for this is best seen by drawing an analogy with the plans for a house: An architect will normally prepare three sets of drawings for a house - plan, side elevation and front elevation. Together, these show the detail of what the architect has interpreted as his client's requirements. They enable a three-dimensional model of the house to be built. The three diagrams also assist by identifying and eliminating any inconsistencies - for example, that the floor levels are correct or that stairways are in the correct place, since the three sets of diagrams must match in every detail. So it is in the analysis of computer systems. Different diagram techniques give different views of the system, but no matter which techniques are used, they must all be consistent with each other. If they are not, there are errors in the underlying analysis or in the interpretation of requirements. If only one or two methods are used, inconsistencies cannot be readily identified, and this can lead to expensive mistakes later on, when the system is being constructed
A public domain systems analysis methodology embodies three separate diagramming techniques: one to show the manner in which different items of information are related to each other(for example, that one item of information, the case record, may refer to more than one defendant). Second, to show the flow of information between users, and third, to show the events which surround each piece of information in the system. The diagram produced by these techniques serve much the same purpose as architectural plans- they are relatively simple follow, and because they use strict conventions for representing different information, they leave little scope for ambiguity or misunderstanding. The diagrams do, however, take a considerable amount of work to prepare, rticularly if they are subject to frequent alterations Computer-aided systems are available to assist with implementing these methods, and particularly to assist with checking the internal consistency of the information models and producing the diagrams. Numerous courses and computer-based training packages are also available The process of analysing the requirements for a computer system will almost invariably require a considerable degree of interaction with the staff of the organisation. The purpose of the analysis is to understand and document, for those processes which the computer system will tackle What information is involved in the processes, where it comes from, how it is stored, who uses it, and for what purposes I. How different pieces of information are inter-related What actions are taken as a result of the information being available The techniques used by computer analysts to determine these details are based largely on interviewing the staff most directly involved in the current processes which the computer system is to replace, as well as with is there managers who may wish to recommend changes to the current procedures and methods of working.It re important that during the analysis stage the computer analysts meet with staff and senior managers to accomplish the following L. Briefing of analysts by senior managers, to specify the scope and boundaries of the proposed system; I. Interviews of relevant staff by the computer analysts I. Diagrams showing the structure of the information currently in use and proposed for the computer system (sometimes called data navigation diagrams), how the information relates to actions and procedures in the office(sometimes called data flow diagrams), and how the information is used or affected(sometimes called entity life history diagrams) L. Review meetings with the staff and senior managers, to check out the detail of the diagrams produced by the The end result of the design phase is a clear and unambiguous specification of what the computer system is required to do, how, in logical terms, it is required to do it, the information which the system will be required to handle and the manner in which the different information items are interlinked 5.6 Data standards In most computer systems, it is beneficial to establish and maintain standards for all the items of information that are held in the system-what each item of information means, for example, and the format in which particular types of information are to be stored. In criminal justice, because of the complexity of the organisational structure, the traditional differences in definitions of terms between agencies, and the considerable volumes of information passing between it is vital to devote significant effort to establishing and maintaining data standards for the whole computerisation syster This means that each component of the information to be held in the computer system should be carefully tabulated, with details of its definition recorded. To take a simple example, most criminal justice computer systems
A public domain systems analysis methodology embodies three separate diagramming techniques: one to show the manner in which different items of information are related to each other (for example, that one item of information, the case record, may refer to more than one defendant). Second, to show the flow of information between users, and third, to show the events which surround each piece of information in the system. The diagrams produced by these techniques serve much the same purpose as architectural plans - they are relatively simple to follow, and because they use strict conventions for representing different information, they leave little scope for ambiguity or misunderstanding. The diagrams do, however, take a considerable amount of work to prepare, particularly if they are subject to frequent alterations. Computer-aided systems are available to assist with implementing these methods, and particularly to assist with checking the internal consistency of the information models and producing the diagrams. Numerous courses and computer-based training packages are also available. The process of analysing the requirements for a computer system will almost invariably require a considerable degree of interaction with the staff of the organisation. The purpose of the analysis is to understand and document, for those processes which the computer system will tackle: I. What information is involved in the processes, where it comes from, how it is stored, who uses it, and for what purposes; I. How different pieces of information are inter-related; I. What actions are taken as a result of the information being available. The techniques used by computer analysts to determine these details are based largely on interviewing the staff most directly involved in the current processes which the computer system is to replace, as well as with the senior managers who may wish to recommend changes to the current procedures and methods of working. It is therefore important that during the analysis stage the computer analysts meet with staff and senior managers to accomplish the following: I. Briefing of analysts by senior managers, to specify the scope and boundaries of the proposed system; I. Interviews of relevant staff by the computer analysts; I. Diagrams showing the structure of the information currently in use and proposed for the computer system (sometimes called data navigation diagrams), how the information relates to actions and procedures in the office (sometimes called data flow diagrams), and how the information is used or affected (sometimes called entity life history diagrams); I. Review meetings with the staff and senior managers, to check out the detail of the diagrams produced by the analyst. The end result of the design phase is a clear and unambiguous specification of what the computer system is required to do, how, in logical terms, it is required to do it, the information which the system will be required to handle, and the manner in which the different information items are interlinked. 5.6 Data Standards In most computer systems, it is beneficial to establish and maintain standards for all the items of information that are held in the system - what each item of information means, for example, and the format in which particular types of information are to be stored. In criminal justice, because of the complexity of the organisational structure, the traditional differences in definitions of terms between agencies, and the considerable volumes of information passing between agencies, it is vital to devote significant effort to establishing and maintaining data standards for the whole computerisation system. This means that each component of the information to be held in the computer system should be carefully tabulated, with details of its definition recorded. To take a simple example, most criminal justice computer systems
