A CONCISE COURSE IN THE ART OF WRITING Whether you're composing a letter,writing a school thesis,or THE starting a novel,The Oxford Essential Guide to Writing offers expert advice on how to think more creatively,how to conjure up ideas from scratch,and how to express those ideas clearly and elegantly.No matter where you find yourself in the writing process-from the daunting blank page to the rough draft that needs shaping to the small but important questions of punctuation-you'll find what you need in this one handy. all-inclusive volume. OXFORD .How to use journals to store ideas and explore potential topics Examples of style and technique from such masters of form as Mark Twain,H.L.Mencken,E.B.White,and Annie Dillard THE ESSENTIAL RESOURCE-FROM THE .Advice on using outlines to shape your material-and drafts and revisions to refine them FIRST NAME IN REFERENCE Selecting the proper words to convey both information and point of view .A useful appendix on punctuation,ranging from commas to Essential underlining and capitalization OXFORD Guide to Writing ESSENTIAL GUIDE WRITING .Step-by-step approach for organizing,shaping, TO WRITING and completing your work Rules of style and technique 17640 Appendix on punctuation and grammar Examples of expert prose from the masters 183100599 ISBN0-425-17b40-1 Thomas S.Kane s5.99
Acknowledgments This book is based on The Oxford Guide to Writing:A Rhet- oric and Handbook for College Students,and thanks are due once more to those who contributed to that book:my friend and colleague Leonard J.Peters;Professors Miriam Baker of Dowling College,David Hamilton of the University of lowa, Robert Lyons and Sandra Schor of Queens College of the City University of New York,and Joseph Trimmer of Ball State University,all of whom read the manuscript and con- tributed perceptive comments;Ms.Cheryl Kupper,who copyedited that text with great thoroughness and care;and John W.Wright,my editor at the Oxford University Press. For the present edition I am again grateful to Professor Leonard J.Peters and to John W.Wright.In addition I wish to thank William P.Sisler and Joan Bossert,my editors at Oxford University Press,who encouraged,criticized,and im- proved,as good editors do. Kittery Point,Maine T.S.K. December 1987
Acknowledgments This book is based on The Oxford Guide to Writing: A Rhetoric and Handbook for College Students, and thanks are due once more to those who contributed to that book: my friend and colleague Leonard J. Peters; Professors Miriam Baker of Dowling College, David Hamilton of the University of Iowa, Robert Lyons and Sandra Schor of Queens College of the City University of New York, and Joseph Trimmer of Ball State University, all of whom read the manuscript and contributed perceptive comments; Ms. Cheryl Kupper, who copyedited that text with great thoroughness and care; and John W. Wright, my editor at the Oxford University Press. For the present edition I am again grateful to Professor Leonard J. Peters and to John W. Wright. In addition I wish to thank William P. Sisler and Joan Bossert, my editors at Oxford University Press, who encouraged, criticized, and improved, as good editors do. Kittery Point, Maine T.S.K. December 1987
Contents Introduction 3 1.Subject,Reader,and Kinds of Writing 5 2.Strategy and Style 9 3. Grammar,Usage,and Mechanics 13 PART 1 The Writing Process 17 4.Looking for Subjects 19 5.Exploring for Topics 23 6. Making a Plan 29 7.Drafts and Revisions 34 PART II.The Essay 43 8.Beginning 45 9.Closing 60 10.Organizing the Middle 67 11.Point of View.Persona.and Tone 74 PART 3 The Expository Paragraph 87 12.Basic Structure 89 13.Paragraph Unity 95 14.Paragraph Development:(1)Illustration and Restatement 106
Contents Introduction 3 1. Subject, Reader, and Kinds of Writing 5 2. Strategy and Style 9 3. Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics 13 PART 1 The Writing Process 4. Looking for Subjects 19 5. Exploring for Topics 23 6. Making a Plan 29 7. Drafts and Revisions 34 17 PART II. 8. 9. 10. 11. The Essay 43 Beginning 45 Closing 60 Organizing the Middle Point of View, Persona, 67 and Tone 74 PART 3 The Expository Paragraph 87 12. Basic Structure 89 13. Paragraph Unity 95 14. Paragraph Development: (1) Illustration and Restatement 106
8 CONTENTS 15.Paragraph Development:(2)Comparison,Contrast, and Analogy 114 16.Paragraph Development:(3)Cause and Effect 125 17.Paragraph Development:(4)Definition,Analysis, and Qualification 132 PART 4.The Sentence 149 18.The Sentence:A Definition 151 19.Sentence Styles 161 20.The Well-Written Sentence:(1)Concision 191 21.The Well-Written Sentence:(2)Emphasis 200 22.The Well-Written Sentence:(3)Rhythm 223 23.The Well-Written Sentence:(4)Variety 234 PART V.Diction 241 24.Meaning 243 25.Clarity and Simplicity 262 26. Concision 281 27. Figurative Language 295 28. Unusual Words and Collocations 325 29.Improving Your Vocabulary:Dictionaries 336 PART VI.Description and Narration 349 30.Description 351 31.Narration 366 PART VII.Punctuation 377 Introduction 379 32. Stops 383 33. The Other Marks 417 Name Index 439 Subject Index 445
8 CONTENTS 15. Paragraph Development: (2) Comparison, Contrast, and Analogy 114 16. Paragraph Development: (3) Cause and Effect 125 17. Paragraph Development: (4) Definition, Analysis, and Qualification 132 PART 4. The Sentence 149 18. The Sentence: A Definition 151 19. Sentence Styles 161 20. The Well-Written Sentence: (1) Concision 191 21. The Well-Written Sentence: (2) Emphasis 200 22. The Well-Written Sentence: (3) Rhythm 223 23. The Well-Written Sentence: (4) Variety 234 PART v. Diction 241 24. Meaning 243 25. Clarity and Simplicity 262 26. Concision 281 27. Figurative Language 295 28. Unusual Words and Collocations 325 29. Improving Your Vocabulary: Dictionaries 336 PART vi. Description and Narration 349 30. Description 351 31. Narration 366 PART VII. Punctuation 377 Introduction 379 32. Stops 383 33. The Other Marks 417 Name Index 439 Subject Index 445
The New Oxford Guide to Writing
The New Oxford Guide to Writing
Introduction Two broad assumptions underlie this book:(1)that writing is a rational activity,and(2)that it is a valuable activity To say that writing is rational means nothing more than that it is an exercise of mind requiring the mastery of tech- niques anyone can learn.Obviously,there are limits:one can- not learn to write like Shakespeare or Charles Dickens.You can't become a genius by reading a book. But you don't have to be a genius to write clear,effective English.You just have to understand what writing involves and to know how to handle words and sentences and para- graphs.That you can learn.If you do,you can communicate what you want to communicate in words other people can understand.This book will help by showing you what good writers do. The second assumption is that writing is worth learning.It is of immediate practical benefit in almost any job or career. Certainly there are many jobs in which you can get along without being able to write clearly.If you know how to write, however,you will get along faster and farther. There is another,more profound value to writing.We cre- ate ourselves by words.Before we are businesspeople or law- yers or engineers or teachers,we are human beings.Our
Introduction Two broad assumptions underlie this book: (1) that writing is a rational activity, and (2) that it is a valuable activity. To say that writing is rational means nothing more than that it is an exercise of mind requiring the mastery of techniques anyone can learn. Obviously, there are limits: one cannot learn to write like Shakespeare or Charles Dickens. You can't become a genius by reading a book. But you don't have to be a genius to write clear, effective English. You just have to understand what writing involves and to know how to handle words and sentences and paragraphs. That you can learn. If you do, you can communicate what you want to communicate in words other people can understand. This book will help by showing you what good writers do. The second assumption is that writing is worth learning. It is of immediate practical benefit in almost any job or career. Certainly there are many jobs in which you can get along without being able to write clearly. If you know how to write, however, you will get along faster and farther. There is another, more profound value to writing. We create ourselves by words. Before we are businesspeople or lawyers or engineers or teachers, we are human beings. Our
INTRODUCTION growth as human beings depends on our capacity to under- stand and to use language.Writing is a way of growing.No one would argue that being able to write will make you mor- ally better.But it will make you more complex and more interesting-in a word,more human
INTRODUCTION growth as human beings depends on our capacity to understand and to use language. Writing is a way of growing. No one would argue that being able to write will make you morally better. But it will make you more complex and more interesting—in a word, more human
CHAPTER Subject,Reader, and Kinds of Writing Choosing a Subject Often,of course,you are not free to choose at all.You must compose a report for a business meeting or write on an as- signed topic for an English class.The problem then becomes not what to write about but how to attack it,a question we'll discuss in Chapters 5 and 6. When you can select a subject for yourself,it ought to in- terest you,and interest others as well,at least potentially.It should be within the range of your experience and skill, though it is best if it stretches you.It ought to be neither so vast that no one person can encompass it nor so narrow and trivial that no one cares. Don't be afraid to express your own opinions and feelings. You are a vital part of the subject.No matter what the topic, you are really writing about how you understand it,how you feel about it.Good writing has personality.Readers enjoy sensing a mind at work,hearing a clear voice,responding to an unusual sensibility.If you have chosen a topic that is of general concern,and if genuine feeling and intelligence come through,you will be interesting.Interest lies not so much in a topic as in what a writer has made of it
CHAPTER 1 Subject, Reader, and Kinds of Writing Choosing a Subject Often, of course, you are not free to choose at all. You must compose a report for a business meeting or write on an assigned topic for an English class. The problem then becomes not what to write about but how to attack it, a question we'll discuss in Chapters 5 and 6. When you can select a subject for yourself, it ought to interest you, and interest others as well, at least potentially. It should be within the range of your experience and skill, though it is best if it stretches you. It ought to be neither so vast that no one person can encompass it nor so narrow and trivial that no one cares. Don't be afraid to express your own opinions and feelings. You are a vital part of the subject. No matter what the topic, you are really writing about how you understand it, how you feel about it. Good writing has personality. Readers enjoy sensing a mind at work, hearing a clear voice, responding to an unusual sensibility. If you have chosen a topic that is of general concern, and if genuine feeling and intelligence come through, you will be interesting. Interest lies not so much in a topic as in what a writer has made of it
6 INTRODUCTION About Readers You don't want to repel readers.This doesn't mean you have to flatter them or avoid saying something they may disagree with.It does mean you must respect them.Don't take their interest for granted or suppose that it is the readers'job to follow you.It's your job to guide them,to make their task as easy as the subject allows. Ask yourself questions about your readers:What can I ex- pect them to know and not know?What do they believe and value?How do I want to affect them by what I say?What attitudes and claims will meet with their approval?What will offend them?What objections may they have to my ideas, and how can I anticipate and counter those objections? Readers may be annoyed if you overestimate their knowl- edge.Tossing off unusual words may seem a put-down,a way of saying,"I know more than you."On the other hand,la- boring the obvious also implies a low opinion of readers: don't tell them what a wheel is;they know.It isn't easy to gauge your readers'level of knowledge or to sense their be- liefs and values.Sensitivity to readers comes only with ex- perience,and then imperfectly.Tact and respect,however,go a long way.Readers have egos too. Kinds of Writing The various effects a writer may wish to have on his or her readers-to inform,to persuade,to entertain-result in dif- ferent kinds of prose.The most common is prose that in- forms,which,depending on what it is about,is called exposition,description,or narration. Exposition explains.How things work-an internal com- bustion engine.Ideas-a theory of economics.Facts ofevery- day life-how many people get divorced.History-why Custer attacked at the Little Big Horn.Controversial issues laden with feelings-abortion,politics,religion.But whatever
6 INTRODUCTION About Readers You don't want to repel readers. This doesn't mean you have to flatter them or avoid saying something they may disagree with. It does mean you must respect them. Don't take their interest for granted or suppose that it is the readers' job to follow you. It's your job to guide them, to make their task as easy as the subject allows. Ask yourself questions about your readers: What can I expect them to know and not know? What do they believe and value? How do I want to affect them by what I say? What attitudes and claims will meet with their approval? What will offend them? What objections may they have to my ideas, and how can I anticipate and counter those objections? Readers may be annoyed if you overestimate their knowledge. Tossing off unusual words may seem a put-down, a way of saying, "I know more than you." On the other hand, laboring the obvious also implies a low opinion of readers: don't tell them what a wheel is; they know. It isn't easy to gauge your readers' level of knowledge or to sense their beliefs and values. Sensitivity to readers comes only with experience, and then imperfectly. Tact and respect, however, go a long way. Readers have egos too. Kinds of Writing The various effects a writer may wish to have on his or her readers—to inform, to persuade, to entertain—result in different kinds of prose. The most common is prose that informs, which, depending on what it is about, is called exposition, description, or narration. Exposition explains. How things work—an internal combustion engine. Ideas—a theory of economics. Facts of everyday life—how many people get divorced. History—why Custer attacked at the Little Big Horn. Controversial issues laden with feelings—abortion, politics, religion. But whatever
SUBJECT,READER,AND KINDS OF WRITING 7 its subject,exposition reveals what a particular mind thinks or knows or believes.Exposition is constructed logically.It organizes around cause/effect,true/false,less/more,positive/ negative,general/particular,assertion/denial.Its movement is signaled by connectives like therefore,however,and so,be- sides,but,not only,more important,in fact,for example. Description deals with perceptions-most commonly visual perceptions.Its central problem is to arrange what we see into a significant pattern.Unlike the logic of exposition,the pat- tern is spatial:above/below,before/behind,right/left,and so on. The subject of narration is a series of related events-a story.Its problem is twofold:to arrange the events in a se- quence of time and to reveal their significance. Persuasion seeks to alter how readers think or believe.It is usually about controversial topics and often appeals to reason in the form of argument,offering evidence or logical proof. Another form of persuasion is satire,which ridicules folly or evil,sometimes subtly,sometimes crudely and coarsely.Fi- nally,persuasion may be in the form of eloquence,appealing to ideals and noble sentiments. Writing that is primarily entertaining includes fiction,per- sonal essays,sketches.Such prose will receive less attention here.It is certainly important,but it is more remote from everyday needs than exposition or persuasion. For Practice List ten or twelve topics you might develop into a short essay. Think of topics that deal not so much with things,places,or how-to- do projects as with your opinions and beliefs.Pick subjects that interest you and are within your experience,yet challenging.Be specific:don't simply write "my job"but something like "what I like most (or hate most)about my job." Selecting one of the topics on your list,compose a paragraph about the readers for whom you might develop it.Consider how
SUBJECT, READER, AND KINDS OF WRITING 7 its subject, exposition reveals what a particular mind thinks or knows or believes. Exposition is constructed logically. It organizes around cause/effect, true/false, less/more, positive/ negative, general/particular, assertion/denial. Its movement is signaled by connectives like therefore, however, and so, besides, but, not only, more important, in fact, for example. Description deals with perceptions—most commonly visual perceptions. Its central problem is to arrange what we see into a significant pattern. Unlike the logic of exposition, the pattern is spatial: above/below, before/behind, right/left, and so on. The subject of narration is a series of related events—a story. Its problem is twofold: to arrange the events in a sequence of time and to reveal their significance. Persuasion seeks to alter how readers think or believe. It is usually about controversial topics and often appeals to reason in the form of argument, offering evidence or logical proof. Another form of persuasion is satire, which ridicules folly or evil, sometimes subtly, sometimes crudely and coarsely. Finally, persuasion may be in the form of eloquence, appealing to ideals and noble sentiments. Writing that is primarily entertaining includes fiction, personal essays, sketches. Such prose will receive less attention here. It is certainly important, but it is more remote from everyday needs than exposition or persuasion. For Practice > List ten or twelve topics you might develop into a short essay. Think of topics that deal not so much with things, places, or how-todo projects as with your opinions and beliefs. Pick subjects that interest you and are within your experience, yet challenging. Be specific: don't simply write "my job" but something like "what I like most (or hate most) about my job." £> Selecting one of the topics on your list, compose a paragraph about the readers for whom you might develop it. Consider how
