Water shortage and needs for wastewater re-use in the north china X C Wang and P.K. Jin School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, No 13 Yanta Road, Xi'an 710055, China(E-mail: xcwang @auat edu cn) 98→8 Abstract This paper analyses the present condition of the water shortage in north China where annual rainfall is low and per capita water resource is below the line of regular water stress, or even the line of absolute water scarcity Of the available water resources, the percentge of water withdrawal in all the north basins is high the Yellow River and Huai River basins being greater than 80%6 and the Hai River basin mainly depending on interbasin water transfer. Over-withdrawal of water also results in serious water environmental problems including" flow cut-off"of the Yellow River main channel and water pollution of many rivers. The paper also analyses the potential of wastewater as a resource and the demand for treated wastewater re-use. In north China, due to low rainfall and high potential evaporation environmental re-use, gardening, afforestation, etc is considered as the main usage of the treated wastewater. Considering the economic restrictions in the less developed area, a decentralised system can be taken as an important option in formulating water re-use strategies. Keywords Annual rainfall; decentralisation; north China; potential evaporation; water shortage Introduction According to the latest statistical data, the total renewable water resources in the world amount to 4. x 10 m /year(Water Resources Institute, 2003).Considering the total world population of 6,301,463,000(United Nation Population Division, 2003), the per capita water resource can be calculated as 6, 859 m/person/year. However, due to an uneven distribution of rainfall, and uneven distribution of the population, the actual per capita water resource differs extensively region by region and country by country. Among the major watersheds of the world, the Thelon River basin in Canada's North West Territories has the highest per capita water resource at 14, 641, 336 m/person/year while the Yaqui River in Sonora, Mexico has the lowest per capita water resource as only 173 m/person/year(Water Resources Institute, 2001). The Yellow River basin in China is also the watersheds with very low per capita water resource at 361m/ person/year (Water Resources Institute, 2001). Regarding water resource by countries, Iceland has the highest per capita water resource at 599,944 m/person/year, while the United Arab Emirates have the lowest per capita water resource at only 55.5 m/person/ (Water Resources Institute, 2001). An uneven distribution of water one country exists according to its geographical, meteorological and demographical conditions It is widely accepted that the per capita water resource can be used as a parameter for reasonable evaluation of water supply conditions. Once a countrys available water resources drop below 1, 700 m per person per year, the country can be expected perience regular water stress -a situation in which disruptive water shortages ca frequently occur; if the available water resource drops below 1,000 m"/person/year. evere and lead to problems with food production and econ- the amount of water available per capita drops below doi:10.2166/wst2006.267
Water shortage and needs for wastewater re-use in the north China X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, No 13 Yanta Road, Xi’an 710055, China (E-mail: xcwang@xauat.edu.cn) Abstract This paper analyses the present condition of the water shortage in north China where annual rainfall is low and per capita water resource is below the line of regular water stress, or even the line of absolute water scarcity. Of the available water resources, the percentge of water withdrawal in all the north basins is high – the Yellow River and Huai River basins being greater than 80% and the Hai River basin mainly depending on interbasin water transfer. Over-withdrawal of water also results in serious water environmental problems including “flow cut-off” of the Yellow River main channel and water pollution of many rivers. The paper also analyses the potential of wastewater as a resource and the demand for treated wastewater re-use. In north China, due to low rainfall and high potential evaporation environmental re-use, gardening, afforestation, etc. is considered as the main usage of the treated wastewater. Considering the economic restrictions in the less developed area, a decentralised system can be taken as an important option in formulating water re-use strategies. Keywords Annual rainfall; decentralisation; north China; potential evaporation; water shortage Introduction According to the latest statistical data, the total renewable water resources in the world amount to 4.3219 £ 1013 m3 /year (Water Resources Institute, 2003). Considering the total world population of 6,301,463,000 (United Nation Population Division, 2003), the per capita water resource can be calculated as 6,859 m3 /person/year. However, due to an uneven distribution of rainfall, and uneven distribution of the population, the actual per capita water resource differs extensively region by region and country by country. Among the major watersheds of the world, the Thelon River basin in Canada’s North West Territories has the highest per capita water resource at 14,641,336 m3 /person/year, while the Yaqui River in Sonora, Mexico has the lowest per capita water resource as only 173 m3 /person/year (Water Resources Institute, 2001). The Yellow River basin in China is also among the watersheds with very low per capita water resource at 361 m3 / person/year (Water Resources Institute, 2001). Regarding water resource by countries, Iceland has the highest per capita water resource at 599,944 m3 /person/year, while the United Arab Emirates have the lowest per capita water resource at only 55.5 m3 /person/ year (Water Resources Institute, 2001). An uneven distribution of water resource within one country exists according to its geographical, meteorological and demographical conditions. It is widely accepted that the per capita water resource can be used as a parameter for a reasonable evaluation of water supply conditions. Once a country’s available water resources drop below 1,700 m3 per person per year, the country can be expected to experience regular water stress – a situation in which disruptive water shortages can frequently occur; if the available water resource drops below 1,000 m3 /person/year, the consequences can be more severe and lead to problems with food production and economic development; and if the amount of water available per capita drops below Water Science & Technology Vol 53 No 9 pp 35–44 Q IWA Publishing 2006 doi: 10.2166/wst.2006.267 35
500 m/person/year, countries face conditions of absolute water scarcity(Engelman and Leroy, 1993; Falkenmark and widstrand, 1992; United Nations Population Fund, 1997) According to the Water Resources Institute (2000), in 1995 approximately 41% of the orld's population, or 2.3 billion people, lived in river basins under water stress, with a water supply below 1, 700 m/person/year. Of these, approximately 1.7 billion people resided in highly stressed river basins where water supply fell below 1,000 m/person/ year. By 2025, it is projected that, assuming current consumption patterns continue, at least 3.5 billion people or 48% of the world,s population -will live in water-stressed river basins. Of these, 2.4 billion will live under high water stress conditions To meet the present and future needs of water supply, various measures have to be aken into consideration. Many countries that are water scarce are dealing with the water shortage problem by investing in inter-basin water transfer, saline water desalination and wastewater reclamation and re-use(International Hydrological Programme, 1999; Minton et aL., 2003: Asano and Levine, 1996). Among these options, inter-basin water transfer, i.e. to transfer water from a water rich basin to a water scarce basin. and saline water desalination are not very practicable and/or feasible to many countries or regions due to the limitation of locations and economic factors but wastewater reclamation and re-use can be practiced in various ways. Therefore, priority has begun to be placed on waste water re-use in selection of measures to solve the water shortage problem. As will be described in the following sections, China, as a vast country with a large population, facing this problem and is at the beginning of practicing wastewater reclamation and re- use. In this paper, the author intends to analyse the present condition of the available water resource in north China, to discuss its water shortage problem and needs for waste- water re-use, and to suggest a strategy of wastewater re-use in the urban area of this region, taking into account the regional, environmental and economical factors Water resource in north china Distribution of water resources at the national level China has a total renewable water resource of 2, 8255x 10m(Ministry of Water Resource, 2002). This perhaps ranks as number 6 in the world following Brazil, Rus sia, United States, Canada and Indonesia (Water Resources Institute, 2003). However, due to its large population of 1. 29227 billion(National Bureau of Statistics, 2004), the per capita water resource is only 2, 130 m/person/year which is less than 1/3 of the world average and ranks number 118 among the 154 countries in the world where data are available (Water Resources Institute, 2003). China possesses a large territory with its geographical and meteorological conditions varying from the north to the south and from the east to the west. As can be seen in Figure 1. there is gradual decrease of average annual rainfall from the southeast to the northwest. In the south provinces, such as Guangdong and Fujian, the annual rainfall can be high as 2, 000mm, while in the northwest provinces, such as Xinjiang Uygur Auton omous Region, where desert and Gobi areas occupy a large portion of the territory. the annual rainfall drops to less than 50 mm. The whole country can be divided into 10 hydrological zones or large river basins, as shown in Figure 2. The basic data of each basin related to the renewable water resource and water withdrawals are sum- marised in Tables I and 2, based on the 2002 national annual report on water resources(Ministry of Water Resource, 2002 It is clear from Table 1 that the 10 hydrological and three are below 500 m/person/year, the level of absolute water scarcity. All these water scarce zones are in the north part of China. Among them, the Hai r
500 m3 /person/year, countries face conditions of absolute water scarcity (Engelman and Leroy, 1993; Falkenmark and Widstrand, 1992; United Nations Population Fund, 1997). According to the Water Resources Institute (2000), in 1995 approximately 41% of the world’s population, or 2.3 billion people, lived in river basins under water stress, with a water supply below 1,700 m3 /person/year. Of these, approximately 1.7 billion people resided in highly stressed river basins where water supply fell below 1,000 m3 /person/ year. By 2025, it is projected that, assuming current consumption patterns continue, at least 3.5 billion people – or 48% of the world’s population – will live in water-stressed river basins. Of these, 2.4 billion will live under high water stress conditions. To meet the present and future needs of water supply, various measures have to be taken into consideration. Many countries that are water scarce are dealing with the water shortage problem by investing in inter-basin water transfer, saline water desalination and wastewater reclamation and re-use (International Hydrological Programme, 1999; Minton et al., 2003; Asano and Levine, 1996). Among these options, inter-basin water transfer, i.e. to transfer water from a water rich basin to a water scarce basin, and saline water desalination are not very practicable and/or feasible to many countries or regions due to the limitation of locations and economic factors, but wastewater reclamation and re-use can be practiced in various ways. Therefore, priority has begun to be placed on wastewater re-use in selection of measures to solve the water shortage problem. As will be described in the following sections, China, as a vast country with a large population, is facing this problem and is at the beginning of practicing wastewater reclamation and reuse. In this paper, the author intends to analyse the present condition of the available water resource in north China, to discuss its water shortage problem and needs for wastewater re-use, and to suggest a strategy of wastewater re-use in the urban area of this region, taking into account the regional, environmental and economical factors. Water resource in north China Distribution of water resources at the national level China has a total renewable water resource of 2,825.5 £ 109 m3 (Ministry of Water Resource, 2002). This perhaps ranks as number 6 in the world following Brazil, Russia, United States, Canada and Indonesia (Water Resources Institute, 2003). However, due to its large population of 1.29227 billion (National Bureau of Statistics, 2004), the per capita water resource is only 2,130 m3 /person/year which is less than 1/3 of the world average and ranks number 118 among the 154 countries in the world where data are available (Water Resources Institute, 2003). China possesses a large territory with its geographical and meteorological conditions varying from the north to the south and from the east to the west. As can be seen in Figure 1, there is a gradual decrease of average annual rainfall from the southeast to the northwest. In the south provinces, such as Guangdong and Fujian, the annual rainfall can be as high as 2,000 mm, while in the northwest provinces, such as Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, where desert and Gobi areas occupy a large portion of the territory, the annual rainfall drops to less than 50 mm. The whole country can be divided into 10 hydrological zones or large river basins, as shown in Figure 2. The basic data of each basin related to the renewable water resource and water withdrawals are summarised in Tables 1 and 2, based on the 2002 national annual report on water resources (Ministry of Water Resource, 2002). It is clear from Table 1 that among the 10 hydrological zones, five are with per capita water resources below 1,700 m3 /person/year, the level of regular water stress, and three are below 500 m3 /person/year, the level of absolute water scarcity. All these water scarce zones are in the north part of China. Among them, the Hai River X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 36
×≤ Figure 1 Average annual rainfall in China (as of average from 1956 to 1979)(source: Liu and Chen, 2001) Basin(Zone III) has a per capita water resource as low as 123.78 m/person/year. It is the water scarcest region in China and nowadays people depend on water trans- ferred from other basins, such as the Yangtze River Basin (Zone vD) through the South-to-North Diversion Project(Pan and Zhang, 2001), so the water withdrawal in this region is 251.57% of the internal water resource, as shown in Table 2. The per capita water resources in the Huai River Basin (Zone V) and Yellow River Basil (Zone IV) are also extremely low, and the water withdrawals take 88 and 82% of the internal water resources in the two basin igure 2 Main hydrological zones in China(source: Liu and Chen, 2001)
Basin (Zone III) has a per capita water resource as low as 123.78 m3 /person/year. It is the water scarcest region in China and nowadays people depend on water transferred from other basins, such as the Yangtze River Basin (Zone VI) through the South-to-North Diversion Project (Pan and Zhang, 2001), so the water withdrawal in this region is 251.57% of the internal water resource, as shown in Table 2. The per capita water resources in the Huai River Basin (Zone V) and Yellow River Basin (Zone IV) are also extremely low, and the water withdrawals take 88 and 82% of the internal water resources in the two basins, respectively. Figure 2 Main hydrological zones in China (source: Liu and Chen, 2001) Figure 1 Average annual rainfall in China (as of average from 1956 to 1979) (source: Liu and Chen, 2001) X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 37
Table 1 Water resources in the main hydrological zones in China (as of 2002) Basin Main river(s) Basin area Population Annual Water resources 1,2484512331 (billion m) Per capita 000 m per and l Heilongjiang 31113.4145.34 ver. Liao river 318.1612845 400 15.9 123.78 125.72 474 48.95 185. ver1,808.50440.591,1761,089.12471.899301 Zhu river 58064155431,708 525.1 146.5 VIll Southeast rivers 239.80 71.93 1,862 2314 133.03 Southwest rivers 851,41 20.55 564.127 3.374442698 187 145.7 17.04 Table 2 Water withdrawals in the main hydrological zones in China (as of 2002) tal(billion m) Domestic (96) Industry (96) Agriculture (96) I and Il 18.6 72.1 41.22 129 38.9 769 8207 612 73.1 168.2 28 555 15.44 645 16.21 X 10.3 1.83 75 93.9 3946 Low annual rainfall. As can be seen from Table l, all the north river basins(Zones IV and X) have very low annual rainfall. The inland rivers basin(Zone X), which covers the desert and Gobi area at the far northwest region, has the lowest annual rainfall at only 187 mm, but because of the vast basin area and relatively small population, the calculated per capita water resource is not low. Another parameter to affect the accessibility of water resource is water resource in unit area. From the last column of Table I it can be seen that the water resource per km- in the inland rivers basin is only approximately 17, 000 m, showing the difficulty in access for wate Uneven distribution of daily rainfall. Another important feature of rainfall in north China is the uneven distribution of daily rainfall within I year. Figure 3 is an example of distribution of recorded daily rainfall in 2002 at Xi'an, a central city in the Yellow River basin. The total annual rainfall in 2002 was 406 mm and the number of days with measurable rainfall(daily rainfall larger or equal to 0. I mm) was 76 days. Among them, the largest daily rainfall was recorded as 75.2 mm on the 9th of June, which was 18.5% of the annual rainfall. The days with rainfall larger than 20 mm were 5 days with a total of 183. 5 mm or 45.2% of the annual rainfall, those with rainfall larger than 10 mm were 12 days with a total of 280.5 mm or 69% of the total annual rainfall, and those with total annual rainfall. The other 43 rainy days were all with a rainfall of less than 2 mm. Such types of uneven distribution may result in intermittently concentrated runoff during
Characteristics of annual rainfall in north China Low annual rainfall. As can be seen from Table 1, all the north river basins (Zones I– IV and X) have very low annual rainfall. The inland rivers basin (Zone X), which covers the desert and Gobi area at the far northwest region, has the lowest annual rainfall at only 187 mm, but because of the vast basin area and relatively small population, the calculated per capita water resource is not low. Another parameter to affect the accessibility of water resource is water resource in unit area. From the last column of Table 1 it can be seen that the water resource per km2 in the inland rivers basin is only approximately 17,000 m3 , showing the difficulty in access for water. Uneven distribution of daily rainfall. Another important feature of rainfall in north China is the uneven distribution of daily rainfall within 1 year. Figure 3 is an example of distribution of recorded daily rainfall in 2002 at Xi’an, a central city in the Yellow River basin. The total annual rainfall in 2002 was 406 mm and the number of days with measurable rainfall (daily rainfall larger or equal to 0.1 mm) was 76 days. Among them, the largest daily rainfall was recorded as 75.2 mm on the 9th of June, which was 18.5% of the annual rainfall. The days with rainfall larger than 20 mm were 5 days with a total of 183.5 mm or 45.2% of the annual rainfall, those with rainfall larger than 10 mm were 12 days with a total of 280.5 mm or 69% of the total annual rainfall, and those with rainfall larger or equal to 2 mm were 33 days with a total of 376 mm or 92.4% of the total annual rainfall. The other 43 rainy days were all with a rainfall of less than 2 mm. Such types of uneven distribution may result in intermittently concentrated runoff during Table 1 Water resources in the main hydrological zones in China (as of 2002) Basin Main river(s) Basin area (000 km2 ) Population (million) Annual rainfall (mm) Water resources Total (billion m3 ) Per capita (m3 /person) 000 m3 per km2 I and II Heilongjiang River, Liao River 1,248.45 123.31 460 137.3 1113.41 45.34 III Hai River 318.16 128.45 400 15.9 123.78 125.72 IV Yellow River 794.71 109.19 404 47.4 434.13 48.95 V Huai River 329.21 208.09 726 69.5 333.98 185.90 VI Yangtze River 1,808.50 440.59 1,176 1,089.1 2,471.89 93.01 VII Zhu River 580.64 155.43 1,708 525.1 3,378.41 146.56 VIII Southeast rivers 239.80 71.93 1,862 231.4 3,216.85 133.03 IX Southwest rivers 851.41 20.55 1,073 564.1 27,446.81 12.10 X Inland rivers 3,374.44 26.98 187 145.7 5,401.27 17.04 Table 2 Water withdrawals in the main hydrological zones in China (as of 2002) Basin Water withdrawals Total (billion m3 ) Domestic (%) Industry (%) Agriculture (%) as a % of water resource I and II 56.6 9.3 18.6 72.1 41.22 III 40 12.9 15.5 71.6 251.57 IV 38.9 9 14.1 76.9 82.07 V 61.2 11.7 15.2 73.1 88.06 VI 168.2 12.8 31.7 55.5 15.44 VII 85.1 14 21.5 64.5 16.21 VIII 31.9 14 28.2 57.8 13.79 IX 10.3 9 6.2 84.8 1.83 X 57.5 3.4 2.7 93.9 39.46 X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 38
100[ Annual rainfal 406 mm in 2002 in Xi'an EE四 与皇身与{8豆邕 ×≤ Figure 3 Distribution of daily rainfall in Xi'an in 2002(data source: Meteorological Bureau of Shaanxi Province, 2002) heavy rain while in the other days with light rain, there would be no runoff at all. Consequently, water harvest becomes difficult. This is another reason for the low quantity of available water resource. High potential evaporation. Potential evaporation is defined as the amount of water that could be evaporated if it were available. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the average annual rainfall and the average potential evaporation based on the long term measurement data of 140 meteorological stations in the five northwest provinces (Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Xinjiang). The potential evaporation ranges from 1, 100 to 4,100 mm in this region and there is an apparent trend that the potential evaporation increases as the annual rainfall decreases. The ratio of potential evaporation/annual rainfall can be as high as more than 180, indicating very difficult conditions for the recharge of surface water or groundwater through the rainfall Present condition of water use As shown in Table 2. water withdrawal in the total available water resource from each of the water basins in north China is extremely high. Even in the inland rivers basin(Zone X), where the water resource per km- is very low, the percent of water withdrawal is as high as approximately 40%. The composition of water use in the six water basins in north China(Zones I-V and X) in 2002 is shown in Figure 5. Water for agriculture takes 5 4000 3000 8 1000 1000 Annual rainfall/ mm Figure 4 Relation between annual rainfall and potential evaporation( data source: Institute of Geographic Science and Resources, 2004)
heavy rain while in the other days with light rain, there would be no runoff at all. Consequently, water harvest becomes difficult. This is another reason for the low quantity of available water resource. High potential evaporation. Potential evaporation is defined as the amount of water that could be evaporated if it were available. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the average annual rainfall and the average potential evaporation based on the long term measurement data of 140 meteorological stations in the five northwest provinces (Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Xinjiang). The potential evaporation ranges from 1,100 to 4,100 mm in this region and there is an apparent trend that the potential evaporation increases as the annual rainfall decreases. The ratio of potential evaporation/annual rainfall can be as high as more than 180, indicating very difficult conditions for the recharge of surface water or groundwater through the rainfall. Present condition of water use As shown in Table 2, water withdrawal in the total available water resource from each of the water basins in north China is extremely high. Even in the inland rivers basin (Zone X), where the water resource per km2 is very low, the percent of water withdrawal is as high as approximately 40%. The composition of water use in the six water basins in north China (Zones I–V and X) in 2002 is shown in Figure 5. Water for agriculture takes Figure 3 Distribution of daily rainfall in Xi’an in 2002 (data source: Meteorological Bureau of Shaanxi Province, 2002) Figure 4 Relation between annual rainfall and potential evaporation (data source: Institute of Geographic Science and Resources, 2004) X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 39
Domestic. 9. 10% Domestic. 11.30% Industry, 13% Industry, 20.80% Whole country Figure 5 Composition of water us China compared with the whole country 77-9% of the total water use in this region-10% higher than that in the whole country, and indicates a lower level of urban and industrial development in this region Water environmental problems due to water shortage In north China, over withdrawal of water is a common problem in the densely populated city areas or extended irrigation areas. The direct result of over withdrawal is a decrease of water flow in a river channel and/or a decline of groundwater table. As discussed in the for- mer sections. the Yellow River in north China is one of the river basins with a low rainfall but high percent water withdrawal. As is shown in Figure 6, from the early 1970s, increased withdrawal of water from the main channel of the river began to result in a vast decrease of the river flow. In 1972, for the first time, no water was flowing in the river channel for 19 days. Then, in the following years up to 1999, there were 2I years when occasional or extended "flow-cutoff'occurred. The situation became worse in the sever years from 1992 to 1998, with 1997 as the worst year for flow-cutoff to continue from Feb. ruary 7 to December 23 for as long as 226 days in the lower reach of the river. The main reason for the flow-cutoff is the concentrated pumping of water from the river for various water uses especially irrigation use. The total quantity of water withdrawal from the whole river channel could be up to 6,000 m/s, of which approximately 4,000 m/s were from the lower reach. This amount is far beyond the regular flow rate of the river A similar condition is also noticed in other river basins. Figure 7 illustrates the vari- ation of annual fow in the middle reach of weihe river from 1990 to 2002. The Weihe River is the largest tributary of the Yellow River and flows through the Guanzhong Plain where the ancient capital city xian ted. a sudden decrease of the total annual flow occurred in 1994 and it continued to be of a much lower value compared to the Figure 6 Days with flow-cutoff in the lower reach of the Yellow River from 1972 to 1999(data source: Yellow River Committee, 2004)
77.9% of the total water use in this region – 10% higher than that in the whole country, and indicates a lower level of urban and industrial development in this region. Water environmental problems due to water shortage In north China, over withdrawal of water is a common problem in the densely populated city areas or extended irrigation areas. The direct result of over withdrawal is a decrease of water flow in a river channel and/or a decline of groundwater table. As discussed in the former sections, the Yellow River in north China is one of the river basins with a low rainfall but high percent water withdrawal. As is shown in Figure 6, from the early 1970s, increased withdrawal of water from the main channel of the river began to result in a vast decrease of the river flow. In 1972, for the first time, no water was flowing in the river channel for 19 days. Then, in the following years up to 1999, there were 21 years when occasional or extended “flow-cutoff” occurred. The situation became worse in the seven years from 1992 to 1998, with 1997 as the worst year for flow-cutoff to continue from February 7 to December 23 for as long as 226 days in the lower reach of the river. The main reason for the flow-cutoff is the concentrated pumping of water from the river for various water uses especially irrigation use. The total quantity of water withdrawal from the whole river channel could be up to 6,000 m3 /s, of which approximately 4,000 m3 /s were from the lower reach. This amount is far beyond the regular flow rate of the river. A similar condition is also noticed in other river basins. Figure 7 illustrates the variation of annual flow in the middle reach of Weihe River from 1990 to 2002. The Weihe River is the largest tributary of the Yellow River and flows through the Guanzhong Plain where the ancient capital city Xi’an is located. A sudden decrease of the total annual flow occurred in 1994 and it continued to be of a much lower value compared to the Figure 5 Composition of water use in north China compared with the whole country Figure 6 Days with flow-cutoff in the lower reach of the Yellow River from 1972 to 1999 (data source: Yellow River Committee, 2004) X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 40
4000 60Or Daily fiow rate distribution (200 3000 ×≤ Figure 7 Annual flow in the main channel of the Weihe River from 1990 to 2002 and its daily flow rate distribution in 2001( data source: Department of Water Resources of Shaanxi Province, 2003) annual flow before 1993. The main reason for the declined annual flow is also an over Ithdrawal of water from the river channel for agricultural and industrial uses at the upper stream. In addition to this, through a detailed analysis of the daily flow rate distribution within one year(2001 as one example as shown by the inserted graph), it is understood that the daily flow rate fluctuates widely. Most of the runoff is concentrated in the period from September to October and there was apparently a dry period from March to July with very low or almost no daily flow With a very low flow for a long period of time within a year, the river almost loses its rated water quality in the main channel of the Yellow River and its tributaries, suce ability of self-purification and a serious problem of water pollution occurs. The deterio the Weihe River, is drawing public attention( Qian and Tang, 2004). In China, the quality of surface water has been classified into five categories according to its suitability for var- ious water use: Category I for headwater and national natural reserves; Category II for the protected area of first class source water for drinking water supply; Category Ill for the protected area of second class source water for drinking water supply; Category IV for industrial water supply; and Category V for agricultural water use( State Environmen- tal Protection Administration of China, 2002). In many sections of these rivers, the main water quality parameters, such as CODMn and NH3-N, fall into or even below Category V, and the water is unsuitable for any purpose of water use(Qian and Tang, 2004) Needs for water re-use In 2002, the total amount of wastewater discharge through the collection systems in China was 63. 1 billion m,, which was 11.5% of the total water withdrawal(549.7 billion m)or 35.8% of the non-agricultural water withdrawal (176.2 billion m). Of this amount, 38.8 billion m"(61.5%)was from industry and the remaining 24.3 billion m (38.5%) was from domestic wastewater discharge(Ministry of Water Resource, 2002) However, at present, only approximately 30%o of the domestic wastewater from cities and towns are treated. The government has set a goal of popularisation of domestic waste- water treatment of 45% by 2005. This will amount to approximately ll billion m per ear. If 1/ to In of the treated wastewater can be re-used, it can provide a supply of 3.5 to 5.5 billion m per year. Compared with the projected amount of water shortage in more than 400 cities at approximately 6 billion m per year(Zhang and Qian, 1997), the potential of treated domestic wastewater as a water resource is extremely large
annual flow before 1993. The main reason for the declined annual flow is also an over withdrawal of water from the river channel for agricultural and industrial uses at the upper stream. In addition to this, through a detailed analysis of the daily flow rate distribution within one year (2001 as one example as shown by the inserted graph), it is understood that the daily flow rate fluctuates widely. Most of the runoff is concentrated in the period from September to October and there was apparently a dry period from March to July with very low or almost no daily flow. With a very low flow for a long period of time within a year, the river almost loses its ability of self-purification and a serious problem of water pollution occurs. The deteriorated water quality in the main channel of the Yellow River and its tributaries, such as the Weihe River, is drawing public attention (Qian and Tang, 2004). In China, the quality of surface water has been classified into five categories according to its suitability for various water use: Category I for headwater and national natural reserves; Category II for the protected area of first class source water for drinking water supply; Category III for the protected area of second class source water for drinking water supply; Category IV for industrial water supply; and Category V for agricultural water use (State Environmental Protection Administration of China, 2002). In many sections of these rivers, the main water quality parameters, such as CODMn and NH3-N, fall into or even below Category V, and the water is unsuitable for any purpose of water use (Qian and Tang, 2004). Needs for water re-use Potential of wastewater as a water resource In 2002, the total amount of wastewater discharge through the collection systems in China was 63.1 billion m3 , which was 11.5% of the total water withdrawal (549.7 billion m3 ) or 35.8% of the non-agricultural water withdrawal (176.2 billion m3 ). Of this amount, 38.8 billion m3 (61.5%) was from industry and the remaining 24.3 billion m3 (38.5%) was from domestic wastewater discharge (Ministry of Water Resource, 2002). However, at present, only approximately 30% of the domestic wastewater from cities and towns are treated. The government has set a goal of popularisation of domestic wastewater treatment of 45% by 2005. This will amount to approximately 11 billion m3 per year. If 1/3 to 1/2 of the treated wastewater can be re-used, it can provide a supply of 3.5 to 5.5 billion m3 per year. Compared with the projected amount of water shortage in more than 400 cities at approximately 6 billion m3 per year (Zhang and Qian, 1997), the potential of treated domestic wastewater as a water resource is extremely large. Figure 7 Annual flow in the main channel of the Weihe River from 1990 to 2002 and its daily flow rate distribution in 2001 (data source: Department of Water Resources of Shaanxi Province, 2003) X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 41
Needs of water There are various needs for water re-use. For example in the newly formulated"Master Plan of Beijing Municipality (2004-2020)"(Beijing Municipality, 2004), treated domestic wastewater is set as an important water resource in Beijing, mainly for urban gardening, sprinkling, non-drinkable domestic use(car washing, toilet flushing etc. )and industrial cooling water supply. As mentioned in the former sections, low annual rainfall nd high potential evaporation is the characteristic of cities in north China. For these reasons, a large amount of water is used in the urban environment. Table 3 shows the current conditions and future predictions of urban environmental water use in the central urban area of Xi'an city The current daily water supply in Xi'an city is approximately 1.2 million m"/day From Table 3, it is understood that nearly 100,000 m /day or 8.4% of the supplied water is used for gardening and sprinkling. This is equivalent to the domestic water consump- tion of more than 400,000 people at the present level. Supplying water of drinkable qual ity for gardening and sprinkling not only wastes high quality water resources, but also wastes money for the unnecessary treatment of this amount of water. Treated wastewater can be used as a substitutive water source for this purpose Strategies of wastewater re-use For the above-mentioned reasons, nowadays many cities in north China are practicing or planning urban wastewater projects. In Xi an city, pipelines have already been provided for using treated domestic wastewater for gardening along the newly rehabilitated large streets in the city area though the centralised re-use water supply system is still under planning. The cost for such a large scale centralised wastewater treatment and re-use sys- tem is always questioned because it often requires long distance transfer of collected wastewater from the city area to the sewage plants, which are usually located in the out- skirt of the city, and the treated wastewater back to the city area. This is the main diffi culty faced by these cities and becomes an economic restriction on decision making On the other hand, the coverage of wastewater collection and treatment systems is still ery low in north China. In many newly urbanised towns and villages, there are almost no such systems provided. The government persuades each newly constructed sewage plant to introduce measures for treated wastewater re-use. This, in fact, increases the financial burden for these towns to improve their sanitation conditions. In addition to cen- tralised systems, decentralised systems should be put into consideration in formulating strategies of wastewater treatment and re-use. At least three advantages can eseen with the decentralised systems: (1)small service area and therefore small-scale system; (2)onsite treatment and onsite re-use, and (3)no long distance transfer of wastewater and treated effluent Table 3 Water demand for urban environment in Xi'an city(present conditions and predictions of 2020) 2020 Central (km2) Population(million) 2.578 Gardening area(km2? 3882 58.23 Road and 13.61 29.13 later for gardening(m"/da 58230 Water for sprinkling(m"/day) 87,390 otal water demand(m" /day) 99,060 174.735 Water consumption for gardening at 1.5 Um / day or 1, 500 m /km?/day ater consumption for sprinkling at 3o U/m/day or 3, 000 m/km day
Needs of water re-use for urban environment There are various needs for water re-use. For example in the newly formulated “Master Plan of Beijing Municipality (2004–2020)” (Beijing Municipality, 2004), treated domestic wastewater is set as an important water resource in Beijing, mainly for urban gardening, sprinkling, non-drinkable domestic use (car washing, toilet flushing etc.) and industrial cooling water supply. As mentioned in the former sections, low annual rainfall and high potential evaporation is the characteristic of cities in north China. For these reasons, a large amount of water is used in the urban environment. Table 3 shows the current conditions and future predictions of urban environmental water use in the central urban area of Xi’an city. The current daily water supply in Xi’an city is approximately 1.2 million m3 /day. From Table 3, it is understood that nearly 100,000 m3 /day or 8.4% of the supplied water is used for gardening and sprinkling. This is equivalent to the domestic water consumption of more than 400,000 people at the present level. Supplying water of drinkable quality for gardening and sprinkling not only wastes high quality water resources, but also wastes money for the unnecessary treatment of this amount of water. Treated wastewater can be used as a substitutive water source for this purpose. Strategies of wastewater re-use For the above-mentioned reasons, nowadays many cities in north China are practicing or planning urban wastewater projects. In Xi’an city, pipelines have already been provided for using treated domestic wastewater for gardening along the newly rehabilitated large streets in the city area though the centralised re-use water supply system is still under planning. The cost for such a large scale centralised wastewater treatment and re-use system is always questioned because it often requires long distance transfer of collected wastewater from the city area to the sewage plants, which are usually located in the outskirt of the city, and the treated wastewater back to the city area. This is the main diffi- culty faced by these cities and becomes an economic restriction on decision making. On the other hand, the coverage of wastewater collection and treatment systems is still very low in north China. In many newly urbanised towns and villages, there are almost no such systems provided. The government persuades each newly constructed sewage plant to introduce measures for treated wastewater re-use. This, in fact, increases the financial burden for these towns to improve their sanitation conditions. In addition to centralised systems, decentralised systems should be put into consideration in formulating strategies of wastewater treatment and re-use. At least three advantages can be foreseen with the decentralised systems: (1) small service area and therefore small-scale system; (2) onsite treatment and onsite re-use, and (3) no long distance transfer of wastewater and treated effluent. Table 3 Water demand for urban environment in Xi’an city (present conditions and predictions of 2020) Item Present 2020 Central urban area (km2 ) 186.97 275 Population (million) 2.578 3.5 Gardening area (km2 ) 38.82 58.23 Road and square area (km2 ) 13.61 29.13 Water for gardening (m3 /day)a 58,230 87,345 Water for sprinkling (m3 /day)b 40,830 87,390 Total water demand (m3 /day) 99,060 174,735 a Water consumption for gardening at 1.5 L/m2 /day or 1,500 m3 /km2 /day b Water consumption for sprinkling at 3.0 L/m2 /day or 3,000 m3 /km2 /day X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 42
Summary and conclu China possesses a per capita water resource less than 1/3 of the world average, and due to an uneven distribution of annual rainfall. most of the water resources are concentrated in the south and southeast river basins, resulting in a large water deficient area in north China. The four north river basins, namely the Heilongjiang River, Liao River, Hai River, Yellow River and Huai River, are suffering from chronic water shortages charac terised by:(1)low rainfall and high potential evaporation;(2)extremely low per capita water resource; and (3)high percentages or over-withdrawal of water resources. Agricul ture uses approximately 80% of the water and is the main reason of over-withdrawal water resources. As a result, the water environment has severely deteriorated and many rivers water quality have become unsuitable for any purpose. ×Q≤9g卫天 Analysis results show that the potential of treated wastewater is extremely large to be used as an additional water resource in the whole country, especially north China Should the goal of 45% domestic wastewater treatment be attained, and 1/3 to 1/2 of the treated wastewater be re-used, the problem of water shortage in most of the cities could be greatly relieved With low rainfall and high potential evaporation, gardening and afforestation in the north cities need large quantities of water and, therefore, is considered to be the main se tor for treated wastewater re-use. The construction of a large-scale centralised wastewater system often requires high costs for long distance transfer of collected wastewater from the city area to the sewage treatment plant, and for the treated wastewater to be returned back to the city area for re-use. This becomes the main difficulty for the popularisation of wastewater re-use in less developed areas. In this regard, decentralised systems should be put into consideration in formulating wastewater treatment and re-use strategie References Asano, T. and Levine, A D.(1996). Wastewater reclamation, recycling and reuse: past, present, and future. ech,33(l01), Beijing Municipality (2004). Master Plan of Beijing Municipality (2004-2020). Abstract available on-line at: http://www.people.comcn/gb/jinGji/ Engelman, R. and Leroy, P. ( 1993). Sustaining Water: Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies, Population Action Intemational, Washington, DC. Falkenmark, M. and widstrand, C(1992). Population and Water Resources: A Delicate Balance. Population Bulletin, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC Institute of Geographic Science and Resources (2004). Scientific database. Institute of Geographic Science andResourcesChineseAcademyofScienceAvailableOn-lineat:http://www.data.ac.cn/index.asp International Hydrological Programme (1999). Inter Basin Water Transfer. International Workshop on Interbasin Water Transfer, UNESCO, Paris, 25-27 April 1999 Liu, C.M. and Chen, Z.K.(2001). Assessment of the Present Condition of Water Resources in China and Analysis of the Trend of Demand and Supply(in Chinese), China Water Power Press, Beijing Pan, J.Z. and Zhang. ZZ(2001). Rational Water Allocation in North China and South-North Water Transfer(in Chinese), China WaterPower Press, Beijing Meteorological Bureau of Shaanxi Province(2002). Daily Rainfall Recording of Xi'an Station Unpublished data Ministry of Water Resources(2002). Report of Water Resources in 2002 (in Chinese), Ministry of Water Minton, J, Luster, T, Silva, P, Spath, D. and Sugar. J. (2003). Desalination Task Force Report(Draft). Desalination Task Force, Department of Water Resources, California. Qian, Y and Tang, H.X. (2004). Study on the Measures of Water Pollution Control in Northwest China (in Chinese). Science Press, Beijing. State Environmental Protection Administration of China(2002). Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water(GB 3838-2002), State Environmental Protection Administration of China. Beijing United Nation Population Division(2003). World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision. ESA/P/WP. 180
Summary and conclusion China possesses a per capita water resource less than 1/3 of the world average, and due to an uneven distribution of annual rainfall, most of the water resources are concentrated in the south and southeast river basins, resulting in a large water deficient area in north China. The four north river basins, namely the Heilongjiang River, Liao River, Hai River, Yellow River and Huai River, are suffering from chronic water shortages characterised by: (1) low rainfall and high potential evaporation; (2) extremely low per capita water resource; and (3) high percentages or over-withdrawal of water resources. Agriculture uses approximately 80% of the water and is the main reason of over-withdrawal of water resources. As a result, the water environment has severely deteriorated and many rivers’ water quality have become unsuitable for any purpose. Analysis results show that the potential of treated wastewater is extremely large to be used as an additional water resource in the whole country, especially north China. Should the goal of 45% domestic wastewater treatment be attained, and 1/3 to 1/2 of the treated wastewater be re-used, the problem of water shortage in most of the cities could be greatly relieved. With low rainfall and high potential evaporation, gardening and afforestation in the north cities need large quantities of water and, therefore, is considered to be the main sector for treated wastewater re-use. The construction of a large-scale centralised wastewater system often requires high costs for long distance transfer of collected wastewater from the city area to the sewage treatment plant, and for the treated wastewater to be returned back to the city area for re-use. This becomes the main difficulty for the popularisation of wastewater re-use in less developed areas. In this regard, decentralised systems should be put into consideration in formulating wastewater treatment and re-use strategies. References Asano, T. and Levine, A.D. (1996). Wastewater reclamation, recycling and reuse: past, present, and future. Wat. Sci. Tech., 33(10/11), 1–14. Beijing Municipality (2004). Master Plan of Beijing Municipality (2004–2020). Abstract available on-line at: http://www.people.com.cn/GB/jingji/. Engelman, R. and Leroy, P. (1993). Sustaining Water: Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies, Population Action International, Washington, DC. Falkenmark, M. and Widstrand, C. (1992). Population and Water Resources: A Delicate Balance. Population Bulletin, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC. Institute of Geographic Science and Resources (2004). Scientific database. Institute of Geographic Science and Resources, Chinese Academy of Science. Available On-line at: http://www.data.ac.cn/index.asp. International Hydrological Programme (1999). Inter Basin Water Transfer. International Workshop on Interbasin Water Transfer, UNESCO, Paris, 25–27 April 1999. Liu, C.M. and Chen, Z.K. (2001). Assessment of the Present Condition of Water Resources in China and Analysis of the Trend of Demand and Supply (in Chinese), China WaterPower Press, Beijing. Pan, J.Z. and Zhang, Z.Z. (2001). Rational Water Allocation in North China and South –North Water Transfer (in Chinese), China WaterPower Press, Beijing. Meteorological Bureau of Shaanxi Province (2002). Daily Rainfall Recording of Xi’an Station, Unpublished data. Ministry of Water Resources (2002). Report of Water Resources in 2002 (in Chinese), Ministry of Water Resources, P.R.C.. Minton, J., Luster, T., Silva, P., Spath, D. and Sugar, J. (2003). Desalination Task Force Report (Draft), Desalination Task Force, Department of Water Resources, California. Qian, Y. and Tang, H.X. (2004). Study on the Measures of Water Pollution Control in Northwest China (in Chinese), Science Press, Beijing. State Environmental Protection Administration of China (2002). Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water (GB 3838–2002), State Environmental Protection Administration of China, Beijing. United Nation Population Division (2003). World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision. ESA/P/WP. 180. X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 43
United Nations Population Fund (1997). Population and Sustainable Developmenl-Five Years Afier Rio, UNFPA, New York. WaterResourcesInstitute(2003).FreshWaterResources2003.AvailableOn-lineat:http://earthtrends.wri.org. WaterResourcesInstitute(2001)majorWatershedsoftheWorldAvailableOn-lineathttp://earthtrends.wri.org Water Resources Institute(2000) Annual Renewable Water Supply Per Person by River Basin. Available On-lineat:http://earthtrends.wri.org/. Yellow River Committee(2004). Statistics of Yellow River Flow. Yellow River Committee, Ministry of WaterResourcesP.r.c.AvailableOn-lineathttp://yellowriver.org Zhang Z.X. and Qian, Y (1997). Urban Sustainable Development and Water Pollution Control(in Chinese). China Architecture and Building Press, Beijing
United Nations Population Fund (1997). Population and Sustainable Development—Five Years After Rio, UNFPA, New York. Water Resources Institute (2003). Fresh Water Resources 2003. Available On-line at: http://earthtrends.wri.org. Water Resources Institute (2001) Major Watersheds of the World. Available On-line at: http://earthtrends.wri.org. Water Resources Institute (2000) Annual Renewable Water Supply Per Person by River Basin. Available On-line at: http://earthtrends.wri.org/. Yellow River Committee (2004). Statistics of Yellow River Flow. Yellow River Committee, Ministry of Water Resources, P.R.C. Available On-line at: http://yellowriver.org. Zhang, Z.X. and Qian, Y. (1997). Urban Sustainable Development and Water Pollution Control (in Chinese), China Architecture and Building Press, Beijing. X.C. Wang and P.K. Jin 44