/ Training and Development Module 7.1 Foundations of Training Training Criteria 280 and Learning 258 Utility Analysis 282 Training,Learning,and Performance 259 Training Evaluation Designs 282 Training Needs Analysis 260 Equal Employment Opportunity The Learning Process in Training 262 Issues in Training 284 Learning Organizations 269 Module 7.4 Specialized Training Module 7.2 Content and Methods Programs 286 of Training 272 Management and Leadership Training Methods 272 Development 286 Training"Critical Thinking"276 Sexual Harassment Awareness Transfer of Training 277 Training 290 Ethics Training 291 Module 7.3 Evaluating Training Programs 280 Cross-Cultural Training 292 Training Evaluation 280 Scanned by CamScanner
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MODULE 7.1 Foundations of Training and Learning Jackie slid into the driver's seat and checked the map one more time before backing out of the garage.It was Monday,and for the duration of the week she would be commuting not to her office but to an off-site center where she and other new managers from various departments and locations in her company would receive training to develop their supervi- sory skills.As she drove,Jackie realized that she was more nervous than she had anticipated. She didn't know what to expect from the training program,in terms of either what would be required of her or what she would be learning.She also wondered how her fellow engi- neers,who had become her subordinates when she was promoted,would react when she returned to work.Would they be on the lookout for her to "act like a manager"instead of like a colleague?She wasn't even sure how supportive her own boss was of this training program or of any changes in her supervisory style that might result from it.As we will describe in this chapter,Jackie's apprehension about the purpose and effects of the training program is legitimate.I-O psychologists have done a great deal of research on training rel. evant to Jackie's concerns and questions.Research on training has also provided guidelines for training practitioners about the best ways to identify training needs,design and imple- ment training programs,and evaluate the effectiveness of training. Training is big business,particularly in the United States,Japan,and western Europe. A survey by researchers at the American Society for Training and Development(2010) indicated that training expenditures as a percentage of payroll averaged about 3 percent in European companies,2 percent in U.S.organizations,and I percent in Japanese companies. Organizations in the United States spend approximately $162 billion annually on training and development(American Society for Training and Development,2013).Evidence indi. cates that training is effective and that these training expenditures are paying off in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee(Arthur,Bennett,Edens,Bell,2003). Training can be beneficial for the organization and for employees in terms of increasing their value to their organization as well as their employability in the broader marketplace. Many organizations are using training and development as a way to attract and retain their most successful employees.In addition,web-based and computer-based training are increasingly being used to expand employees'access to training (Welsh.Wanberg.Brown, Simmering,2003). Given how expensive and important training is,it is important for I-O psychologists to use a systematic approach to training that includes an assessment of training needs,incor- poration of principles of learning,consideration of transfer of the training,and evaluation of training programs.In this chapter,we will discuss this systematic approach,which has resulted in great strides in our understanding of training and development. In an assessment of training research over the preceding decade,Salas and Cannon- Bowers (2001)expressed optimism about the fact that there are more theories,models. empirical studies,and meta-analyses on training than ever before.They concluded that Scanned by CamScanner
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7.1 Foundations of Training and Leaming 259 "there has been nothing less than an explosion in training-related research in the past 10 years"(p.472).Two other reviews offer a similarly optimistic view of the state of training research and practice (Aguinis Kraiger.2009:Kraiger Ford,2006).Although the science of training has progressed greatly in recent years,many challenges lie ahead.We will describe these encouraging advances as well as the hurdles facing today's training researchers and practitioners. In Chapter 3 we discussed individual differences and how they relate to a variety of work outcomes.For selection purposes,1-0 psychologists assume that individual difference characteristics on which hiring decisions are based are relatively stable over time.This assumption is supported by research evidence for certain individual difference characteris- tics (e.g,general mental ability.personality)that are used in selection(Costa McCrae. 1997:Murphy Davidshofer,2005).In contrast,researchers and practitioners in the train- ing field assume that knowledge and skills can be changed and enhanced.For example, effective training programs can enhance knowledge about sexual harassment and safety procedures.Training can also develop employees'interpersonal and computer skills,which in turn can be applied back on the job.Skills and knowledge,then,are generally more "trainable"than abilities or personality characteristics.In sum,although training cannot change or enhance all individual difference characteristics,it can be used in combination with selection and other human resource systems to assemble a strong workforce. Training,Learning,and Performance Training is the systematic acquisition of skills,concepts,or attitudes that result in improved Training Systemati performance in another environment(Goldstein Ford,2002).The basic foundation for acaisition of skills.conrepts rtttudes that resut in training programs is learning.a relatively permanent change in behavior and human capa- n字wtdp向mmance in bilities that is produced by experience and practice.Learning outcomes can be organized another eewiroement. into three broad categories:cognitive,skill-based,and affective outcomes(Kraiger,Ford, Learning Arelatively Salas,1993).An example of a cognitive outcome is declarative knowledge:knowledge of ea0t中angn rules,facts,and principles.In training programs,for example,police officers acquire behavior and human declarative knowledge about laws and court procedures.Declarative knowledge is an es prodared b可 important component of Campbell,McCloy,Oppler,and Sager's(1993)theory of perfor- agenence and practice mance,which we discussed in Chapter 4.Skill-based outcomes,which are similar to pro- Cognitive outcome Type cedural knowledge as defined by Campbell and colleagues,concern the development of motor or technical skills.For example,motor skills might involve the coordination of physi- cal movements such as using a specialized tool or flying a certain aircraft,whereas technical ledge.or knowtedgeof skills might include understanding a certain software program or exhibiting effective cus- sfarts and principles tomer relations behaviors.Affective outcomes include attitudes or beliefs that predispose a Skill-based outcome person to behave in a certain way.Attitudes may be developed or changed through training ype of leaming outcome programs,which can be powerful sources of socialization(discussed further in Chapter 14) that concerns the develnpment of motor for new and existing employees(Klein Weaver,2000).Examples of attitudes that can be technical sill acquired or modified through training are organizational commitment and appreciation of diversity. Affective outcome Type of learming outcome that It is important to note that training,learning.and performance are distinct concepts. ndudes attitudes or b时hh First,training is a planned experience intended to lead to learning.which may occur pedp0场aperson to through informal experiences as well.How much is learned in training,however,is influ- he销a6anwy enced by several factors(characteristics of trainees and training design)that we will describe Performance Actions or in greater detail below.Second,learning is expected to improve performance on the job.As behiorsevant to the we discussed in Chapter 4.performance is something that people actually do and,in many aon的gnk cases,performance can be directly observed.In contrast,learning cannot be observed,so ar树nt形时电h ndmidua自profidency we often assume that learning has taken place when we observe performance,such as in a Scanned by CamScanner
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260 Chapter7 Training and Development test following a class or a training session.Thus,learning often results in better perfor- mance,both in training and back on the job.However,this desirable situation is not neces- sarily the case,particularly if the work environment is not supportive of employees demonstrating newly learned knowledge and skills.Although all learning does not result in improved performance,careful attention to training design,principles of learning.and work environment characteristics can greatly increase its likelihood of doing so.The point is that training increases the probability of learning,and learning increases the probability of better job performance(Landy,1989).By understanding the factors that affect learning. training researchers and practitioners can enhance the performance of individuals,teams. and organizations. Organizations offer many types of training programs,including-among many others- new employee orientation,team training,sexual harassment awareness,and the devel- opment of cross-cultural,management,and leadership skills.Although the specific requirements of these training programs vary greatly,training researchers and practitioners benefit from using a consistent framework or model when designing.implementing,and evaluating all training programs.In this chapter we follow Goldstein and Ford's(2002) training model.This model begins with a training needs analysis,which is critical in under- standing training needs and subsequently setting training objectives.Once objectives are set,then training can be designed and delivered.Following the implementation of training programs,the next step is to carefully develop training criteria and evaluate the training program with the use of training evaluation models.We will discuss each of these steps in the next few modules.Following that,we consider special issues in training and develop- ment,incuding leadership and management development,sexual harassment awareness training,and cross-cultural training. Training Needs Analysis Before training design issues are considered,a careful needs analysis is required to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed,what needs to be taught or trained Training needs analysis and who will be trained (Goldstein Ford,2002).Training needs analysis (Table 7.1)typi- A three-step process af cally involves a three-step process that includes organizational,task,and person analysis oganizational task and (Dierdorff Surface,2008). person analyqured to develop a stematic Organizational analysis examines organizational goals,available resources,and the underst由nding of where organizational environment to determine where training should be directed.This analysis training is neede4确at identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits.Organizational analysis ne达to be taug前a also involves systematically assessing manager,peer,and technological support for the trained and who will be transfer of training,a topic that is discussed in more detail later in the chapter.Similarly, trained organizational analysis takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits. Organizational analysis For example,if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in Component of training nee an4外s that eamines organizationalgoa Wa编onnd gan2 ationalirm减 TABLE 7.1 Training Needs Analysis helps to determine where training should be directed A.Organizational analysis Examines company-wide goals and problems to detemmine where training is needed B.Task analysis Examines tasks performed and KSAOs required to determine what employees must do to perform successfully C.Person analys贴 Examines knowledge,skills,and current performance to determine who needs training Scanned by CamScanner
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7.1 Foundations of Training and Leamning 261 particular parts of the organization (e.g.,production),then training needs will likely reflect this emphasis (Zohar,2002).Organizational analysis also can help ensure that training follows the wider human resources strategy,which in turn needs to follow the overall busi- ness strategy.Otherwise,training managers may design a training program that would be appropriate only for a different organization. Research also indicates that several organizational characteristics can affect how much impact training has back on the job.For example,supervisor and peer support for training helps to motivate employees entering training and increases the likelihood that they will transfer newly acquired knowledge,skills,abilities,and other characteristics(KSAOs)to the job (Colquitt.LePine,Noe,2000).Consider an employee who is welcomed back after a training program by a manager who says,"Now that you've got that out of your system.I hope you're ready to get back to work";the employee is not likely to be highly motivated to apply the newly learned skills back on the job.Thus,it is critical to conduct an organizational analysis before developing a training program so that appropriate support for training exists. Task analysis examines what employees must do to perform the job properly.As we Task analysi（amponent discussed in Chapter 4.a job analysis identifies and describes the tasks performed by ftramning needs analysis employees and the KSAOs needed for successful job performance.If available,the results of h过examines what a job analysis are very helpful in determining training needs.Task analysis,which examines go5各mu时eo what the content of training should be,can consist of(1)developing task statements, (2)determining homogeneous task clusters (which are more usable and manageable than individual task statements),and (3)identifying KSAOs required for the job.The links between task clusters and KSAOs can be used to develop training programs that are directed toward enhancing critical KSAOs.Table 7.2 shows task clusters derived from a task analysis performed on the job of a train operator.The results of the task analysis would be used to design training to ensure that train operators would,for example,know the steps they must take in an emergency. Competences Sets of Task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies,which are broader than behaviors usua与ylearned knowledge,skills,or abilities.As we discussed in Chapter 4,competencies are "sets of through experience,that behaviors that are instrumental in the delivery of desired results or outcomes"(Kurz 经nstrumental in the Bartram,2002).Organizations are increasingly trying to identify "core competencies"that mshment f desired are required for all jobs(Shippmann et al.,2000),and training needs analysis is an impor- 网学national esults鲜 tant part of the process of identifying and developing such competencies.For example,if a TABLE 7.2 Task Clusters for Train Operators 1.Preoperation respensbilities Preparing for operating the train for a given shift.This indudes reporting for duty in a statefprepareness with properequipment and gettng informatiomthe bulletin board and/or dispatcher. 2.Preoperation equipment Cheding the train for defects and safety induding checkuing brake system.inspection gauges and track under the train. 3.Train operations The actual operation of the train in a safe and timely manner.This includes controlling the tramn in the yard or on the road:consideration of conditions such as weathe curves and grades:speed restrictions:and interpretation of warings/signals. 4.Maintaining schedule Activities assodated with timely operations,incuding adhering to the timetable and communicating with personnel to prevent disruption of service. 5.Emergency situation dentying and reactngteemergency situations,keeping customers safe. communicating with the control center,and troubleshooting mechanical difficulties. Scanned by CamScanner
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262 Chapter7 Training and Development training needs analysis indicates that innovation is important to the success of a particular company,a training program may be designed to help employees become more innovative and creative.Given the increased emphasis on competencies in organizations,competency training might be included as a supplement to existing training on more specific technical skills(Kraiger,2003) Person analysis Person analysis identifies which individuals in an organization should receive training Component of tranng need and what kind of instruction they need.Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of an外sh城火6gwh methods that identify weaknesses that training and development can address.Many of the ndividual inanr中nization uld receiven可aad issues we discussed in Chapter 3 on assessment and Chapter 5 on performance evaluation what kind of nstruction they are relevant when training specialists are conducting a person analysis.For example,KSAOs can be assessed through the performance evaluation system or through a 360-degree feed- back system that provides input for training and development activities.Objective data on accidents and job performance are often examined as part of the needs analysis,and written tests are used to assess employees'current job knowledge.Organizations are increasingly using person analysis to determine how prepared employees are for a particular training program.Specifically,assessments of trainee personality,ability,and experience are increas- ingly being used as part of the needs assessment process.We will further discuss trainee characteristics below. To summarize,assessing training needs is a three-part process that includes:(1)organi- zational analysis,which identifies company-wide goals and problems,(2)task analysis, which identifies the tasks to be performed,how work should be done,and the KSAOs needed to complete those tasks;and (3)person analysis,which focuses on identifying indi- viduals who need training.Careful needs assessment sets the stage for specifying the objec- tives ofthe training program.Training objectives are needed to design the training program, to use as goals to motivate trainees to learn,and to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program.The needs analysis makes it possible to identify the training program's objectives, which are important for several reasons.First,they represent information for both the trainer and the trainee about what is to be learned.Second,training objectives help to moti- vate trainees by providing clear goals for them.Third,training objectives are necessary to evaluate a training program properly.We will discuss training evaluation in more detail later in the chapter. The Learning Process in Training After training needs have been determined and used to develop training objectives,train- ing design begins with an understanding of how learning occurs.As shown in Figure 7.1. several trainee characteristics (e.g.,readiness to learn,motivation to learn)and training design characteristics (e.g.,principles of learning.objectives)affect the learning process and learning outcomes (Noe,Clarke,Klein,2014). Trainee Characteristics Trainee readiness Refers t每whether employees have Trainee readiness refers to whether employees have the personal characteristics necessary the personal小aracterbo to acquire knowledge from a training program and apply it to the job (Noe,2012).These necessary toacquin characteristics include general mental ability,goal orientation,and experience level.Several noled向e fromatraning studies involving a variety of occupations (e.g.,pilots,technicians,enlisted army and air program and app动惟o force recruits,and computer programmers)indicate that general mental ability ("g")is the job predictive of performance in training (Brown,Le,Schmidt,2006:Ree Carretta.2002). Scanned by CamScanner
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7.1 Foundations of Training and Leaming 263 Training Design Characteristic Learning Transfee Outcomes Outcomes .Generalization and maintenance Trainee Work Characteristics Environment .Support Motivation .Cimate FIGURE7.1 Characteristic Affecting Leaming and Transfer Outcomes AdaptedfmBaldnFord .K.)ransferf:A reviewanddirections fo future reseaPr 41,63-105.Copynght1988by Penone Psychology.Reprinted by permssion of John Wley &SonsLtd In a meta-analysis spanning 85 years,Schmidt and Hunter (1998)found that"g"had a validity of +.56 in predicting training outcomes.A recent meta-analysis of 90 German studies indicated that the validity of "g"in predicting training performance was slightly lower in German samples but was nevertheless comparable to results found in U.S.samples (Hulsheger,Maier,Stumpp,2007).Although there are few empirical studies of training in China or India.it would be interesting to examine these relationships in those countries. As mentioned in Chapter 3,one could hypothesize that training is less important in China and India because these countries have such a large labor pool,but this has yet to be exam. ined.Overall,research indicates that'g"is important for predicting performance in train- ing,which in turn is related to performance on the job.Assessing cognitive ability before training can be useful in grouping individuals based on their readiness to learn the material. For example,with a group of trainees of widely varying cognitive ability,high-ability train- ees will be bored,whereas low-ability trainees will have trouble keeping pace with their peers.With a group of trainees of similar ability,training facilitators can proceed through material at a pace appropriate to the backgrounds of the participants (Fleishman Mumford,1989). Another indicator oftrainee readiness is goal orientation.Individuals with a performance Performance orientation orientation are concerned about doing well in training and being evaluated positively.They Cnentation in which perceive their abilities as somewhat fixed,and they are generally not open to learning envi- ndu are concerned ronments in which errors and mistakes are encouraged.They direct their energy toward utdoing well in training 时being evauated performing well on tasks,often at the expense of learning.Performance-oriented learners postrvely are often sensitive to feedback.which can lead them to reduce their efforts and goals in chal- lenging situations (Farr.Hofmann,Ringenbach.1993:Tziner,Fisher,Senior,Weisberg. 2007).In contrast.individuals with a mastery orientation are concerned with increasing 山astery o时ientation 0ea城n0whh their competence for the task at hand,and they view errors and mistakes as part of the learn- nd加由are concered ing process.Mastery-oriented individuals are flexible and adaptable in learning situations, with incrrasing their which is particularly critical for learning dynamic tasks and complex decision making G球tme每the task (Phillips Gully,1997). d合的ewe姓的d An additional indicator of readiness is the trainee's experience level.Inexperienced t流sas part of the trainees with lower ability generally benefit more from longer and more structured training lnarning process Scanned by CamScanner
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264 Chapter7 Training and Development programs(Gully,Payne,Koles,Whiteman,2002).In contrast,experienced trainees with high ability thrive in shorter,less structured training programs.Even prior negative expe- riences and failures can be useful in heightening motivation to learn before training begins.The negative experience provides a window of opportunity for the organization to offer immediate training rather than merely make a note of the incident for a later training effort.Research also indicates that integrating errors into the training process can improve subsequent performance (Frese Keith,2015).Such error management training is being used in military,aviation,and medical settings as well as in driving simulators.For exam- ple,Ellis and Davidi(2005)found that the performance of Israeli soldiers doing successive navigation exercises improved significantly when they were debriefed on their failures and successes after each training day.This emphasis on learning from errors highlights the increasing focus in the training field on self-regulatory processes,which involve the ability to focus one's attention and actively engage in the training content or other tasks required at the time.Self-regulation is an important component of goal setting.which is discussed below. Trainee motivation Trainee motivation is the extent to which trainees are interested in attending training. Extent to which trainees are learning from training,and transferring the skills and knowledge acquired in training back interestedinattending to the job(Ford et al.,1998;Mathieu Martineau,1997).Among a variety of individual traning.leaming from difference characteristics,Tziner and colleagues(2007)found that training motivation and training and transfeming the skillsand nowed learning goal orientation contributed most to positive training outcomes.Researchers often acquired n traning back use an expectancy framework to study and understand training motivation (Baldwin to the job Ford,1988).That is,if trainees believe the work environment is favorable before they begin Expectancy framework the training program,they will be more motivated to learn.Thus,managers and trainers Approach in which should develop an environment that facilitates training motivation,which can be enhanced employees'expectations by using principles from several learning and motivation theories. about the relationshp Practitioner articles and journals often suggest that individual differences in learning between how much effort they expend and how well styles are important to consider in advance of training.A learning style is a preferred they perfom are important method of learning that can focus on sensory modalities(auditory.visual,kinesthetic)or to their metivabon and on preferences for concrete experiences versus reflective observations.Several different learning learning style inventories have been developed (e.g,Kolb,2005),and the results of these inventories are being used to customize training to match trainee learning preferences.For example,if an online learning tool that includes a preassessment identifies trainees as visual learners,then the bulk of training content might be offered with interesting visual displays: alternatively,if trainees are found to be more comfortable with auditory formats,online training content might have a narrator speaking throughout the training program (Hartley West,2007).Though learning style inventories are increasingly being used as part of training programs,little research has investigated the usefulness,reliability,and validity of learning styles in improving training and its transfer to the job (Noe,2012). Quite a bit of research has been conducted on learning styles in educational settings and in the educational psychology literature (KolbKolb,2005);however,given that these inven- tories are being used widely in work settings,it is also important for I-O psychologists to rigorously examine their usefulness. Learning and Motivational Theories Applied to Training Positive reinforcement Reinforcement Theory Occurs when desine时 behaior is fellowed的a B.F.Skinner's (1954)work on reinforcement was important in early theories of motivation. 接wrd.which increases the which we discuss further in Chapter 8.Skinner also applied principles of reinforcement probability that the beh theory to the educational and learning process.He proposed that learning results from the w量be repeate association between behaviors and rewards.Positive reinforcement occurs when behavior Scanned by CamScanner
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7.1 Foundations of Training and Leaming 265 is followed by a reward,which increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. As a learning mechanism.positive reinforcement is useful in pointing out when a trainee or job incumbent demonstrates the correct behaviors and skills.Reinforcement is generally most effective when it occurs immediately after a task has been completed or performed. Rewards that positively reinforce desired behaviors can range from praise from a supervi- sor,peer,or trainer to gifts,cash bonuses,attention,recognition,and career opportunities. For example,a trainer can praise trainees who effectively demonstrate the skill they were just taught.Employers can provide positive reinforcement by offering career opportunities to employees who engage in training and development programs.Reinforcement theory suggests that trainers and supervisors can best enhance learning and transfer of knowledge and skills by identifying what rewards or outcomes the learner finds most positive (Goldstein Ford,2002:Noe.2012). Cognitive and Social Learning Theories Cognitive theories focus on how individuals process and interpret information,while acknowledging that humans do not always learn by performing a task themselves and receiving direct reinforcement.Instead,humans can use memory,judgment,and reasoning to make connections between what they observe and how they should behave or perform in work and non-work situations.Social learning theory is a cognitive theory that pro- Socal learning theory poses that there are many ways to learn.For example,humans can learn indirectly by Cognitive theory that observing others (Bandura,1997).Observational learning occurs when people watch poves that there ar单mu间 ways to leam,induding someone (in person or via a videotape)perform a task and then rehearse those activities bervational leaming mentally until they have an opportunity to try them out.Social learning theory is at work whch otrurs whmn prople when trainees are being mentored and when they are "learning the ropes"by watching tch sumeone perform。 more experienced colleagues perform certain tasks.Trainees can also learn by asking more task and then rehearse those experienced employees questions and by listening to them describe the critical behaviors activities menta与y that lead to successful performance. have an opportunity to by them out. Given the increasing number of jobs in the service industry and the use of teams in organizations,interpersonal skills training has become ever more important.A technique called behavioral modeling is often used to apply principles of social learning theory to the Behavioral modeling development of interpersonal skills in managers and supervisors.Behavioral modeling Leaming approach that consists of observing actual job incumbents or videos of job incumbents that demonstrate positive modeling behaviors,rehearsing the behavior using a role-playing technique,receiv. 地umbents)who ing feedback on the rehearsal,and finally trying out the behavior on the job.For example. monstrate pesitiv behavioral modeling occurs when telemarketing trainees listen in while an experienced medeing behavors. telemarketer talks with a customer.May and Kahnwieler(2000)used behavioral modeling eang the behavior to improve interpersonal skills using role-play practice exercises.They found that practice g的g technigue,receiving sessions that broke down tasks into manageable parts led to high retention rates and high feedback on the rehearsal. scores on a simulated interpersonal skills case study.In a meta-analysis,Taylor,Russ-Eft, n时yng out the树hio and Chan (2005)found that the largest effects of behavioral modeling were on declarative 第he and procedural knowledge. Applications of behavioral modeling are also being utilized in technical and computer skills training programs.In a field experiment examining different approaches to com. puter training for novice computer users in the Navy,Simon and Werner (1996)compared the behavioral modeling approach to a self-study course and a traditional classroom approach.Behavioral modeling included observing the trainer,practicing the tasks,receiv. ing feedback,and experimenting with new ways to carry out the tasks.Results indicated that behavioral modeling was superior to the other approaches at time 1(immediately after training)and time 2 (one month later)across evaluation measures that included attitudes about the training.knowledge gained from the training,and demonstration of skills Scanned by CamScanner
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266 Chapter7 Training and Development learned.Another study found that managerial trainees performed better when exposed to behavioral modeling for computer training than to computer-assisted instruction(Gist, Schwoerer,Rosen,1989).These studies indicate that both managerial and nonmanagerial employees can benefit from behavioral modeling in terms of computer skill development and demonstration. Social learning theory is a broad-based approach that includes self-efficacy.goal setting. and feedback,which are important aspects of the learning process that occur in training.As we will discuss further in Chapter 8,these three concepts are also important parts of moti- Self-efficacy Belief in vational theory and practice.Self-efficacy,the belief in one's capability to perform a spe- g的nGap时bliyt每P4roma cific task or reach a specific goal,enhances trainees'motivation,learning,and subsequent p代ak储ha performance on the job (Bandura,1997:Colquitt et al.,2000).Trainees high in self-efficacy specific goal are likely to attempt difficult tasks both in training and back on the job.Researchers have found that self-efficacy plays an important role in a variety of training programs,including negotiation skills training.computer software training,and training in innovative problem solving.Training specialists can increase trainees'self-efficacy by using behavioral mode- ling and by providing words of encouragement.Machin(2002)and Noe (2010)noted that trainees'self-efficacy levels can also be increased in the following ways: 1. Before training begins,providing as much information as possible about the training program and the purpose of training 2 Reducing perceived threats to trainees by initially emphasizing learning outcomes and de-emphasizing performance outcomes,which become more important after training Showing employees the training success of peers in similar jobs Helping trainees develop better learning strategies to use during training,such as summarizing main points and using memory aids to help retention Goal setting Motwational Goal setting can strengthen trainee motivation and self-efficacy,which in turn are help- appmoach in which specific ful in enhancing learning and skill acquisition in training.A great deal of research indicates difficult geals direct that specific,difficult goals improve performance in training and on the job(Austin a或tention and improve performance in training and Vancouver,1996).For example,a recent meta-analysis(Mesmer-Magnus Viswesvaran, on the job 2007)indicated that setting pre-training goals resulted in higher post-training performance than when no goals were set.Thus,trainers should encourage trainees to set specific,diffi- cult goals,which help to direct and focus their attention on the most important tasks. Machin (2002)emphasized the importance of goal setting and suggested that trainers ensure that all trainees have the following: 1. Clear short-term goals for the training program (e.g."I will complete all of the required modules in the allocated time) 2 Short-term goals for the immediate transfer of their training (e.g."I will begin to use my new knowledge and skills at the first opportunity I have") Long-term goals that focus on continued mastery and use of training content (e.g.. "I will seek feedback from my supervisor and peers after one month and continue to review my progress each month") Feedback Knewledge of Feedback is also important in enhancing learning and performance in training and on the resultsofon的a长tonL the job.Feedback enhances motivation and keeps goal-directed behavior on target. enhances leaming and Feedback about performance in training and on the job is most effective when it is accu- performance in training and 的eb rate,timely,and constructive (Goldstein Ford,2002).Managers should use a clear and nonthreatening manner when they deliver feedback,which should deal specifically with job-relevant behaviors(Kluger DeNisi,1996). Scanned by CamScanner
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