上海交通大学：《管理心理学（通识）Managerial Psychology》课程教学资源（参考教材）chapter1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?

MODULE 1.1 The Importance of I-0 Psychology MODULE 1.3 Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Issues MODULE 1.4 The Organization of This Book

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MODULE 1.1 The Importance of I-0 Psychology The Importance of Work in People's Lives Most adults devote the majority of their waking weekday (and often weekends as well!) to work.High school and college students,too,find themselves using a great deal of their discretionary hours in part-time jobs,particularly during the summer months.For many. this is a greater devotion of time and energy than to any other single waking human activity. For this reason alone,we can assume that work is important to people.Then there is the fact that most people need to earn money,and they do so by working.But the experience of work goes well beyond the simple exchange of time for money. Although many people have mixed feelings about their jobs,research indicates that most people would keep working even if they had the opportunity to stop.The National Research Council,in a book about the changing nature of work(NRC,1999),adds support to this observation.When asked the question "If you were to get enough money to live as comfort- ably as you would like for the rest of your life,would you continue to work or would you stop working?"the percentage of people reporting that they would continue working has averaged approximately 70 percent since at least 1973.A follow-up study found that although that percentage had declined slightly in the years from 1980 to 2006,the majority (68%)of people surveyed still reported that they would continue working if they won the lottery(Highhouse,Zickar,Yankelevich,2010).This is dramatic evidence of the central- ity of work(Arvey,Harpez,Liao,2004)as a noneconomic experience.This is strong testi- mony to the meaning of work-not a particular job,but the experience of working-in defining who we are. The importance of work is further confirmed by talking to people who are about to lose or who have lost their jobs.As we will see,work is a defining characteristic of the way people gauge their value to society,their family,and themselves. The Concept of "Good Work" Gardner(2002)notes that psychology has often ignored how workers actually "conceptual- ize their daily experiences-the goals and concerns they bring to the workplace."He goes on to characterize what he calls "good work"(Gardner,Csikszentmihalyi,Damon,2001). Good work is work that "exhibits a high level of expertise,and it entails regular concern with the implications and applications of an individual's work for the wider world"(Gardner, 2002,p.B7).These concepts have been turned into an extensive endeavor,called the "GoodWork Project,"which is directed toward identifying and,if possible,creating good work.As the project leaders point out,good work is tougher to do than it might seem. Scanned by CamScanner

1.1 Thelmportar "Pressure to keep costs low and profits high,to do more in less time,and to fulfill numerous life roles,including that of a parent,a spouse,a friend,(a student!!),a worker,can all make cutting corners tempting"This "corner cutting"leads to what the researchers call "compromised" work:work that is not illegal or unethical, but that still undermines the core values of a trade or a profession-the lawyer who creates opportunities for billing extra hours,the plumber who uses inferior. cheaper materials for a repair. Martin Luther King.Jr.,captured the essence of good work eloquently:"If a man is called to be a street sweeper,he should sweep streets even as Michelangelo painted,Beethoven composed music,or American 1-0 psychologist David Morris screened applicants in Shakespeare wrote poetry.He should sweep streets so well that all heaven and earth will pause to say,Here lived a great street sweeper who did his job well"(King.1956). Consider the role of an I-O psychologist who worked in Irag to hire and train the new Iraqi police force.David Morris is an 1-O psychologist who had been helping cities and states in the United States select police officers until September 2004.He decided to trade "his comfortable house in Alexandria,Virginia for a bunk bed in the converted office of Baghdad's former police training facility"(Dingfelder,2005,p.34).Every day, Morris and his staff of 15 administered various tests to up to 300 candidates for possible hire.He and his staff could have earned as much if not more money screening appli- cants for the Philadelphia,or Atlanta,or Dallas police force.But instead,they did such screening in Baghdad to help with the restoration of civil order to Iraq.This is good work as well The interesting aspect of "good"and "bad"work is that the individual worker and the employer together have the power to define good work or to transform good work into bad and vice versa.A disreputable accounting firm can cheat and mislead clients and the public, thus engaging in bad work:that same firm and its employees could be doing good work if they are helping people to manage their money and protect their retirement plans.Good work is not simply the province of politicians or soldiers or relief workers. Gardner describes the depressing consequences of settling for"bad"work: We resign ourselves to our fate.It is difficult to quit one's job,let alone one's whole profession. and few in midlife...have the fortitude to do so.As a result....few feel in a position 30 where they can perform good work.(Gardner.2002.p.B7) The study of work by I-O psychologists and students (you!)is potentially 'good work" because it enables individuals to develop and use skills,and to use them for the benefit of someone other than simply themselves.I-O psychologists have also broadened their focus of study to consider the experience of work.Since the mid-1990s there has been a rapid and substantial increase in I-O research related to the feelings that workers bring to and take from the workplace.In addition,there has been a dramatic increase in research directed toward work-life balance issues.Thus,I-O psychology has recognized that the"experience" of work is more complex than simply tasks and productivity and accidents.You will see the results of this research in Chapter 9. Scanned by CamScanner

Chapter 1 What is Industrial and Organizational Psychology? Authenticity:A Trend of Interest to1-0 Psychologists I-O psychology often incorporates cultural shifts and changes.In the past few years, authenticity"-referring to that which is real.genuine.not artificial-has become a popu- lar concept in America.You will see references to"authentic"coffee,music,clothing and furniture lines,foods,and so forth.The attraction of authenticity may also be reflected in some popular TV reality shows such as American ldol,Ice Road Truckers,and The Deadliest Catch,as well as some less dramatic shows dealing with changing families or embarking on a new diet to lose weight.A popular book (Gilmore Pine,2007)argues that,in a world where virtual reality is hecoming increasingly prevalent,authenticity is"what consumers eally want.” In I-O psychology.we might extend the definition of authenticity to a more philosophi- cal level:"an emotionally appropriate.significant.purposive.and responsible mode of human life"(McKean.2005,p.106).Viewing authenticity in that way,we can see authentic. ity reflected in the search for good work"and inspirational leadership.In fact,the term "authentic leadership,"which had not appeared in the literature before 2002,is now a widely addressed topic in the popular press and in the research literature(Gardner et al,2011).We will cover this form of leadership in Chapter 12.In various chapters.we will take note of what appears to be the search for authenticity in work and organizations. What Is I-0 Psychology? Industrial-erganizational Throughout this book we will use the term I-O psychology as a synonym for industrial and (1-0)psycholegy The organizational psychology.Industrial-organizational(1-O)psychology involves the scien- ppycogc tific study of the workplace.A common definition of I-O psychology is the application of princeles.theor年and ah每h#%tng psychological principles,theory,and research to the work setting."Don't be fooled,however, by the phrase"work setting"The domain of1-O psychology stretches well beyond the phys- ical boundaries of the workplace because many of the factors that influence work behavior are not always found in the work setting.These factors include things like family responsi- bilities,cultural influences,employment-related legislation,and non-work events (reflect, for example.on how the terrorist attacks of September 11.2001,changed the work- ing life of most people). Even more significant is the influence of personality on work behavior.Although an individual's personality may actually influence work behavior,his or her per- sonality is often influenced by events that occurred before he or she began full-time employment.In addition.I-O psycholo- gists are concerned about the effect of work on non-work behaviors.Spouses and children are well aware of the effect of a "bad day at work"on home life.I-O psychology concentrates on the recipro- cal impact of work on life and life on work. We can also think of 1-O psychology as 1-0psychologists have become involved in a number of humanitarian issues,induding a combination of knowledge and skills poverty reduction and partmering with global aid/development groups. that can be applied in a wide diversity of Scanned by CamScanner

1.1 The Importa settings rather than just in the arena of traditional work.The example of David Morris helping to select the Traqi police force is one of those examples.In a similar vein.I-O psy. chologists are helping to revise the test given to individuals seeking U.S.naturalization (Ulewicz.2005). A more formal definition of 1-0 psychology,approached from the perspective of the I-O psychologist and what he or she does,has been adopted by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (an association to which many I-O psychologists belong.and which we will refer to in this text by the acronym SIOP): Industrial-Organizational (called I-O)Psychologists recognize the interdependence of indi- viduals,organizations,and society,and they recognize the impact of factors such as increasing government influences growing consumer awareness,skill shortages,and the changing nature of the workforce.I-Opsychologists facilitate responses to issues and problems involving people at work by serving as advisors and catalysts for business,industry,labor.public,academic. community.and health organizations They are: Scientists who derive principles of individual,group,and organizational behavior through research:Consultants and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the solution of problems at work;and Teachers who train in the research and application of Industrial-Organizational Psychology.(http://www.sioporg/history/crsppp.aspx.2012 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology,Inc.All Rights Reserved.Reprinted by permission of SIOP.www.siop.org.) Refer to Tables 1.1 and 1.2 for lists of the common areas of concentration for I-O psy- chologists and the common job titles they hold.A series on the SIOP website (http://www. siop.org/psychatwork aspx)called "Psychology at Work:What do 1-O psychologists really do?"provides profiles of 1-O psychologists that include how they became interested in I-O psychology,what a typical day is like,what aspects of the job are most challenging.why I-O psychology matters,and advice to future I-O psychologists. Traditionally,I-O psychology has been divided into three major concentrations:per- sonnel psychology,organizational psychology,and human engineering.We will briefly consider each of these concentrations.Even though we will talk about them separately. they often overlap considerably,as we will see. Personnel psychology(often seen as part of human resources management,or HRM) addresses issues such as recruitment,selection,training,performance appraisal,promo- tion,transfer.and termination.The approach assumes that people are consistently different in their attributes and work behaviors and that information about these differences can be used to predict,maintain,and increase work performance and satisfaction. Organizational psychology combines research and ideas from social psychology and organizational behavior.It addresses the emotional and motivational side of work.It includes topics such as attitudes,fairness,motivation,stress,leadership,teams,and the broader aspects of organizational and work design.In some senses,it concentrates on the reactions of people to work and the action plans that develop as a result of those reactions. Both work and people are variables of interest,and the issue is the extent to which charac- teristics of the people match the characteristics or demands of the work.Of course,organi- zational psychology has implications for performance,but they may not be as direct as is the case with personnel psychology. Human engineering (also called human factors psychology)is the study of the capacities and limitations of humans with respect to a particular environment.The human engineering approach is almost the opposite of the personnel approach.Remember.in the personnel approach the goal is to find or fit the best person to the job.In the human engineering Scanned by CamScanner

Industrial and Organizational Psychology? TABLE 1.1 Common Areas of Concentration for I-0 Psychologists Selection andplacement Developing tests Validating tests Analyzing jobconten ldentifying management potentia Defending testsaganst legal challenge Training and development ldentifying training and development needs Forming and implementing technical and managerial training programs Evaluating training effectiveness Career planning Organizational development Analyzing organization structure Maximiingsaisaonand effectiveness of employees Facilitatingorganization change Performance measurement Developing measures of performance Measuring the ecombenefit of performance Introducing performance evaluation systems Quality of worklife ldentifying factors assated with job satisfaction Reducing stress in the workplace Redesigning jobs to make them more meaningful Engineering psychology Designing work environments Optimizing person-machine effectiveness Making workplacessafer Adaptedfromhtt:/ypp012SodetyforndusraandPooyn Rights Reserved Reprinted by pemissionofwww.siopr approach the task of the human engineer is to develop an environment that is compatible with the characteristics of the worker.The "environmental"aspects this may include are quite diverse;among them are tools,work spaces,information display.shift work.work pace, machine controls,and even the extent to which safety is valued in the organization or work group.Human engineering,more than personnel or organizational psychology.integrates many different disciplines.These disciplines include cognitive science,ergonomics,exercise physiology,and even anatomy.For that reason,we will touch only lightly on topics that form the core of human engineering-work design and safety in the workplace.Nevertheless,if human engineering interests you,there are many excellent texts in the area (e.g.Salvendy, 2006:Wickens Hollands,2000:Wickens,Lee,Gordon,Liu,2004). In the past few pages,you have seen a number of examples of the capabilities of the I-O psychologist.The most striking characteristic of the profession is that research is actually used to address a concrete problem or issue.There is a clear connection between research conducted using the tools of science and the practice of I-O psychology.This emphasis on Scanned by CamScanner

1.1 Thelmpc TABLE1.2 Common Job Titles for l-0 Psychologists Staff member,manager,director,vice president of: Personnel Human resources Organizationl planning Personnel development Organizational development Management development Personnel research Employee relations Training Affirmative action Assistant,assocate,full professor of: Psychology Management Organizationa behavior Industrial relations Human resources Corporate consultant Private consultant Research scentist:private sector Research scentist:government Research scentist:military Research scientist:test publisher the application of scientific knowledge is known as the scientist-practitioner model.This does not mean that every practicing I-O psychologist must also be an active researcher or that every I-O psychologist who does research must be an active practitioner.It simply means that science and practice are both important parts of I-O psychology.As an exam- ple,real problems related to medical accidents and mistakes in operating rooms lead to research on safety culture in hospitals.Similarly,university-based research on team train- ing is tested in hospital environments.An excellent popular version of the scientist- practitioner model can be seen in the TV show CSl:Crime Scene Investigation.A badly decomposed body is found and a team of forensic practitioners (ie,the detectives)bring back samples of clothing.skin,teeth,and so forth to the laboratory for analysis (by the scientists).Sometimes they do their own analysis and sometimes they have more skilled colleagues do the analysis.But regardless of who actually does the analysis,it is done for one reason-to find the murderer.I-O psychology is a bit less exciting than detective work,but the underlying motivation is the same-to address a real issue or problem in the workplace. 1-0 Psychology's ontributions to Society I-O psychologists have become increasingly interested in building sustainable and environ- mentally conscious organizations(Huffman,Watrons-Rodriguez,Henning,Berry,2009). Several 1-O psychologists have described efforts to lead the way in helping organizations to be more sustainable (e.g..DuBoisDuBois,2010;Jackson Seo,2010).Some of these efforts include organizational initiatives that were implemented for traditional business Scanned by CamScanner

at Is Industrial and Organizationl Psychology? purposes (e.g..cost savings and process efficiency)but can in turn yield environmental ben- efits,which are also known as eco-benefits(Klein,Sanders,Huffman,2011).For example, organizational policies involving online testing and assessment(Chapter 3),telecommuting (Chapter 9).and compressed workweeks(Chapter 9)have all been linked with environmen- tal sustainability.Klein and colleagues(2011)note that I-O psychologists can guide organi- zations in identifying and measuring their eco-benefits and in promoting these benefits as another important outcome that can be considered along with more traditional outcomes such as individual,team,and organizational performance.The electronics company Panasonic (2011)announced major new eco-sustainability goals (e.g.double the number of drop-off locations in its electronics recycling program from 800 to 1,600 sites,reduce greenhouse gas emissions at its headquarters by half)that are likely to be adopted by other organizations.I-O psychologists can help lead the way in documenting both intended and unintended eco-benefits in organizations.Huffman and Klein(2013)edited a book entitled Green organizations:Driving change with I-O psychology that provides a number of excellent examples of interventions that encourage sustainable and socially responsible behaviors. In one of the broadest and most ambitious extensions of I-O psychology,Stuart Carr,a New Zealand I-O psychologist,has suggested ways in which I-O psychologists can bring their expertise to bear on humanitarian issues(Carr,2007).Along with other I-O psycholo- gists such as Lori Foster Thompson and Adrian Furnham,Carr has been working to pro- mote prosocial applications of psychology called humanitarian work psychology:the application of I-O psychology to the humanitarian arena,especially poverty reduction and the promotion of decent work,aligned with local stakeholders'needs,and in partnership with global aid/development groups(Carr,2013;Carr,MacLachlan,Furnham,2012). Carr suggests that our expertise in areas such as team building and training,stereotypes, organizational justice,and mental models is exactly the type of knowledge and skill neces- sary for bringing together the essential coalition of governments,aid organizations,and private industry.Carr and colleagues have formed a global network of fellow I-O psycholo- gists interested in addressing the I-O contributions to reducing world poverty (search for gohwp"on the web). In a recent symposium,Carr and other I-O psychologists discussed projects as broad as a U.N.resolution addressing psychological issues in poverty and as narrow as a micro-credit project directed by an 1-0 psychologist for desperately poor women in rural Nicaragua (Schein,2008).Interestingly,many in the audience for that symposium were psychology stu- dents who expressed great appreciation for examples of how I-O psychologists could make a difference in some of the major global problems of the 21st century.Carr's work,and the examples in the previous paragraphs,demonstrate how far-reaching I-O psychology can be. A related trend in I-O psychology is a focus on corporate social responsibility (CSR) which is defined as organizational actions and policies that take into account stakeholders' expectations as well as economic,social,and environmental performance (Aguinis Glavas,2012).CSR activities can include employee volunteering.donating a portion of sales to a charity,donating a portion of profits to school products for needy children,and having a portion of proceeds from sales go to vitamins and clean water for new mothers and their children.CSR activities can be good for the company (in terms of enhanced reputation)and good for the community.I-O psychology research will continue to investigate these CSR activities and how they relate to a variety of employee and customer attitudes and behaviors (Bauman Skitka,2012). Evidence-Based 1-0 Psychology 1-O psychologists have become increasingly focused on making evidence-based decisions in their work in organizations.Cascio and Aguinis(2011)have updated their well-known Applied Psychology in HRM textbook with"Evidence-Based Implications for Practice"in Scanned by CamScanner

1.1 The lmpor every chapter.Many of these evidence-based implications are based on empirical research conducted by I-O psychologists.This trend can also be seen in the human resources(HR) field with Rousseau and Barends'(2011)discussion about how to become an evidence- based HR practitioner.They suggest that HR practitioners use a decision-making process that combines critical thinking with use of the best available scientific evidence.I-O psy- chologists are well positioned to develop and utilize evidence-based practices as they have adopted the scientist-practitioner model to guide the field as well as to guide the training of I-O Master's and PhD students.In a focal article in the journal I-O Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice,Briner and Rousseau (2011)point out that the medical field has done a better job of implementing evidence-based practice than has 1-O psychol- ogy and that making I-O psychology research more accessible to HR practitioners will help with such implementation.In this direction,SIOP and the Society for Human Resource Management(SHRM)are taking steps to put evidence-based 1-0 psychology into the hands of HR practitioners by publishing collaborative articles.The first two arti- cles in the series are on"Skill-Based Pay:HR's Role"and "Driving Customer Satisfaction through HR:Creating and Maintaining a Service Climate."Recent articles in this series are on competency models,leadership development,managing diversity,and performance management.Many more articles are planned for this series.This is a promising step in the process of increasing evidence-based practice and decision making in I-O psychology and the related field of human resources management.Nevertheless,additional collabo- rative efforts will be needed to increase the use of evidence-based I-O psychology in organizations. SIOP as a Resource The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology is the single best resource for anyone interested in I-O psychology.The society accepts student members.SIOP's website (www.siop.org)is regularly updated and includes the following types of information: .The history of I-O psychology and of SIOP Membership information An electronic version of the quarterly newsletter of SIOP,called TIP (The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist),which has now been published for 50 years JobNet,a system that matches employers seeking I-O psychologists with applicants for I-O positions A listing of educational institutions that offer graduate training programs in I-O psychology A list of SIOP publications A list of upcoming conferences A social media page that includes information about SIOP's Facebook,Twitter, Exchange Blog,and Wiki sites A page that describes Prosocial and Humanitarian I-O Psychology At its May,2014 annual conference (a fantastic one in Honolulu!),SIOP launched a re-branding initiative, including a new logo and tagline:Science for a Smarter Workplace (Figure 1.1).The goals of this initiative include(1)promoting the science of I-O psychology,(2) SCIENCE FOR A SMART increasing SIOP's contributions to organizations and society,and(3)educating future I-O psychologists and FIGURE1.1 SIOP logo Scanned by CamScanner

ndustrial and Organizational Psychology? others who might collaborate with I-O psychologists in research or applied projects.We've already discussed examples of the first two goals (e.g,evidence-based I-psychology, humanitarian work psychology),and we will discuss issues related to the third goal later in this chapter. How This Course Can Help You Working is a part of almost everyone's life.Outside of the classroom,you will likely do what most other people do:spend 50 percent or more of your waking weekday hours at work.This means that a course in I-O psychology should benefit you in several ways. First,it can help you understand what you are experiencing in the workplace.Most stu- dents have an exposure to work by the time they finish high school.Most continue to work in some capacity in college(during the summer and/or at part-time jobs during the school year).This textbook does not tell you what emotions to experience at work. Instead,we try to provide a broader context for you to understand various policies and practices that you are likely to experience in your work.For example,material in this text will provide a basis for knowing if the HR policies your organization follows are new or old,tested or untested,likely to be effective or ineffective.Second,chances are that you will eventually be placed in the position of managing the work of others and in that role either developing or at least implementing work-related policies.You may very well become a leader even without asking to be one.The material of this course and the text itself should provide you with a good foundation for developing and/or implementing effective policies.Third,in the course of your daily life you will almost certainly hear friends and family talk about their joys and frustrations with their organizations and work.Many of them will not have the understanding gained from a course like the one you are taking now.You will be able to act as a resource in helping them understand the policies that are affecting them. You might wonder why a course in I-O might be preferred over a course in human resources,or labor relations,or general management.The answer can be found in the ear- lier discussion of the scientist-practitioner model.That is how I-O is different.It applies the results of scientific research to real-world problems.These other courses consider the same real-world problems,but they do not depend on research for drawing conclusions.Instead they depend on experience,or current practices,or suggested "best"practices.And this is a valuable approach as well,but an I-O course is built around the results of scientific research. Although most of the students who read this book for a course they are taking will be nei- ther active researchers nor active practitioners of I-O psychology,there is a high probability that they will be consumers of 1-O research in considering their own jobs or the jobs of subordinates.In addition,many will be exposed to concepts of 1-0 psychology through interactions with psychological consultants or other managers.This course will help those readers become knowledgeable consumers. You will see another benefit from this course that goes beyond the relationship of you or your friends and relatives to a particular organization or job.There are national debates that relate to work.As a result of having taken this course,you will be better informed about many of the issues that form these debates than your colleagues or relatives.As examples of the debates that are currently on the table,consider the following 1.Is employment discrimination old news or is it still occurring?If it is occurring.who are its most common victims?To the extent that it is occurring.what can be done to reduce it?What are the various steps in an employment discrimination lawsuit? Scanned by CamScanner

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