《卫生经济学》课程参考文献（WHO年度报告）：World Health Report 2002_Reducing Risk Promoting Healthy Life_LIST OF MEMBER STATES BY WHO REGION AND MORTALITY STRATUM

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234 The World Health Report 2002 African Region Algeria — AFR-D Angola – AFR-D Benin – AFR-D Botswana – AFR-E Burkina Faso – AFR-D Burundi – AFR-E Cameroon – AFR-D Cape Verde – AFR-D Central African Republic – AFR-E Chad – AFR-D Comoros – AFR-D Congo – AFR-E Côte d’Ivoire – AFR-E Democratic Republic of the Congo – AFR-E Equatorial Guinea – AFR-D Eritrea – AFR-E Ethiopia – AFR-E Gabon – AFR-D Gambia – AFR-D Ghana – AFR-D Guinea – AFR-D Guinea-Bissau – AFR-D Kenya – AFR-E Lesotho – AFR-E Liberia – AFR-D Madagascar – AFR-D Malawi – AFR-E Mali – AFR-D Mauritania – AFR-D Mauritius – AFR-D Mozambique – AFR-E Namibia – AFR-E Niger – AFR-D Nigeria – AFR-D Rwanda – AFR-E Sao Tome and Principe – AFR-D Senegal – AFR-D Seychelles – AFR-D Sierra Leone – AFR-D South Africa – AFR-E Swaziland – AFR-E Togo – AFR-D Uganda – AFR-E United Republic of Tanzania – AFR-E Zambia – AFR-E Zimbabwe – AFR-E Region of the Americas Antigua and Barbuda – AMR-B Argentina – AMR-B Bahamas – AMR-B Barbados – AMR-B Belize – AMR-B Bolivia – AMR-D Brazil – AMR-B Canada – AMR-A Chile – AMR-B Colombia – AMR-B Costa Rica – AMR-B Cuba – AMR-A Dominica – AMR-B Dominican Republic – AMR-B Ecuador – AMR-D El Salvador – AMR-B Grenada – AMR-B Guatemala – AMR-D Guyana – AMR-B Haiti – AMR-D Honduras – AMR-B Jamaica – AMR-B Mexico – AMR-B Nicaragua – AMR-D Panama – AMR-B Paraguay – AMR-B Peru – AMR-D Saint Kitts and Nevis – AMR-B Saint Lucia – AMR-B Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – AMR-B Suriname – AMR-B Trinidad and Tobago – AMR-B United States of America – AMR-A Uruguay – AMR-B Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of – AMR-B Eastern Mediterranean Region Afghanistan – EMR-D Bahrain – EMR-B Cyprus – EMR-B Djibouti – EMR-D Egypt – EMR-D Iran, Islamic Republic of – EMR-B Iraq – EMR-D Jordan – EMR-B Kuwait – EMR-B Lebanon – EMR-B Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – EMR-B Morocco – EMR-D Oman – EMR-B Pakistan – EMR-D Qatar – EMR-B Saudi Arabia – EMR-B Somalia – EMR-D Sudan – EMR-D Syrian Arab Republic – EMR-B Tunisia – EMR-B United Arab Emirates – EMR-B Yemen – EMR-D 234 The World Health Report 2002 Mortality strata A. Very low child, very low adult B. Low child, low adult C. Low child, high adult D. High child, high adult E. High child, very high adult

236 The World Health Report 2002 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Headquarters advisory group Markus Behrend Ruth Bonita John Clements Chris Dye Joan Dzenowagis Michael Eriksen David Evans Metin Gulmezoglum Susan Holck Christopher Murray Thomson Prentice Iqbal Shah Kathleen Strong Tessa Tan-Torres Edejer Paul Van Look Yasmin Von Schirnding Maged Younes Regional reference group Billo Mounkaila Abdou Sussan Bassiri David Brandling-Bennet Anca Dumitrescu Myint Htwe Soe Ynunt-U Cost-effectiveness assessment Taghreed Adam Moses Aikins Perihan Al-Husseini Rob Baltussen James K. Bartram Robert E. Black Ilja Borysenko Cynthia Boschi-Pinto Daniel Chisholm Christina Ciecierski Gerald Dziekan Steeve Ebener Sahra El-Ghannam David Evans Majid Ezzati Valery Feigin Laurence Haller Chika Hayashi Yunpeng Huang Jose Hueb Yvan Hutin Raymond Hutubessy Benjamin Johns Jeremy Lauer Carlene Lawes Julia Lowe Colin Mathers Sumi Mehta Christopher Murray Pat Neff Walker Louis Niessen Kevin O’Reilly Annette Pruess Ken Redekop Juergen Rehm Anthony Rodgers Nataly Sabharwal Joshua Salomon George Schmid Bernhard Schwartlander Anne-Marie Sevcsik Mona Sharan Kenji Shibuya John Stover Michael Sweat Tessa Tan-Torres Edejer Niels Tomijima Mark Van Ommeren Ying Diana Wu Risk assessment Alcohol Ulrich Frick Gerhard Gmel Kathryn Graham David Jernigan Maristela Monteiro Jürgen Rehm Nina Rehn Robin Room Christopher T. Sempos Urban air pollution Ross Anderson Aaron Cohen Kersten Gutschmidt Michal Krzyzanowski Nino Künzli Bart Ostro Kiran Pandey Arden Pope Isabelle Romieu Jonathan Samet Kirk R. Smith Work-related ergonomic stressors Jim Leigh Deborah Nelson Sharonne Phillips Annette Pruess Blood pressure Paul Elliott Malcolm Law Carlene Lawes Stephen MacMahon Anthony Rodgers Stephen Vander Hoorn Breastfeeding Ana Pilar Betrán Mercedes de Onis Jeremy Addison Lauer Work-related carcinogens Carlos Corvalan Tim Driscoll Marilyn Fingerhut Jim Leigh Deborah Nelson Annette Pruess Childhood sexual abuse Gavin Andrews Justine Corry Cathy Issakidis Tim Slade Heather Swanston Cholesterol Malcolm Law Carlene Lawes Stephen MacMahon Anthony Rodgers Stephen Vander Hoorn Climate change Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum Sally Edwards Sari Kovats Paul Wilkinson Fruit and vegetable intake Louise Causer Karen Lock Martin Mckee Joceline Pomerleau Illicit drugs Louisa Degenhardt Wayne Hall Michael Lynskey Matthew Warner-Smith Indoor smoke from solid fuels Mirjam Feuz Sumi Mehta Kirk R. Smith Unsafe health care injections Gregory L. Armstrong Yvan J. F. Hutin Anja Hauri Iodine deficiency Robert E. Black Stephen Fishman Adnan Ali Hyder Luke Mullany Iron deficiency Robert E. Black Luke Mullany Rebecca J. Stoltzfus Lead exposure José Luis Ayuso Lorna Fewtrell Philip Landrigan Annette Pruess Underweight Robert E. Black Stephen Fishman Adnan Ali Hyder Luke Mullany Robert E. Black Laura E. Caulfield Worke-related noise Marisol Concha Carlos Corvalan Marilyn Fingerhut Deborah Nelson Robert Nelson Work-related airborne particulates Carlos Corvalan Tim Driscoll Marilyn Fingerhut Jim Leigh Deborah Nelson Annette Pruess Work-related risk factors for injuries Marisol Concha Carlos Corvalan Marilyn Fingerhut Jim Leigh Deborah Nelson Annette Pruess Overweight Rachel Jackson-Leach W. Philip T. James Eleni Kalamara Cliona Ni Mhurchu Chizuru Nishida Neville J. Rigby Anthony Rodgers Maryam Shayeghi Physical inactivity Tim Armstrong Fiona Bull Tracy Dixon Sandra Ham Andrea Neiman Mike Pratt

Index 237 Poverty Tony Blakely Simon Hales Charlotte Kieft Nick Wilson Alistair Woodward Tobacco Majid Ezzati Alan D. Lopez Unsafe sex John Cleland Martine Collumbien Makeda Gerressu Unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene James K. Bartram Lorna Fewtrell David Kay Annette Pruess Vitamin A deficiency Robert E. Black Amy Rice Keith P. West Jr Zinc deficiency Robert E. Black Laura E. Caulfield Text boxes Causal web Miguel A. Hernán James M. Robins Uwe Siebert Collective violence David Meddings Coronary heart disease and work stress Annette Pruess Environmental tobacco smoke Majid Ezzati Alan D. Lopez Kirk R. Smith Genetics Victor Boulyjenkov Paul McKeigue Pekka Puska Housing and health Carl-Gustaf Bornehag Majid Ezzati Yasmin von Schirnding Interpersonal violence Alex Butchart Debarati Sapir Life course George Davey-Smith Multiple causes Robert Beaglehole National nutrition campaigns Rob Carter Steven Crowley Christine Stone Theo Vos Needlestick injuries Annette Pruess Nutritional transition Barry Popkin Occupational back pain Supriya Lahiri Charles Levenstein Pia Makkanen Patient safety Itziar Larizgoitia Silvester Yunkap Kwankam Population-wide strategies for prevention Robert Beaglehole Malcom Law Pekka Puska Protective factors Krishna Bose Richard Jessor Carol Ryff Burton Singer Road traffic injuries Tony Fletcher Emma Hutchison Marge Peden Ian Roberts Tuberculosis Chris Dye Other contributors Administrative assistance Clarissa Gould-Thorpe Data for figures Malcom Law Pekka Jousilahti Hirotsugu Ueshima Neville Young Epidemiology input Carlene Lawes Patricia Priest Statistical annex Omar Ahmad Christina Bernard Carmen Dolea Brodie Ferguson Mie Inoue Julie Levison Dorothy Ma Fat Colin Mathers Chalapati Rao Tanuja Rastogi Joshua Salomon Kenji Shibuya Claudia Stein Edward Tachie-Menson Niels Tomijima Thomas Truelsen Sarah Wild Mortality Emmanuella Gakidou Mollie Hogan National health accounts Patricia Hernandez Chandika Indikadahena Jean-Pierre Poullier Nathalie Van De Maele Acknowledgements

239 INDEX Abortion 63 Alcohol dependence 65, 81 Absolute risk 36 Alma-Ata Declaration(1978)109 Abuse (see also Childhood sexual abuse)79 Americas(AMR Acetylsalicylic acid 117 abuse and violence 80, 81 Addictive substances (see also Alcohol consumption; addictive substances 66. 67 icit drug use; Tobacco use)64-6 cost-effective interventions 131, 136-137, 138-139 ehavioural change 103 diet-related risk factors 59, 60 environmental risks 68.70 interventions 123-127. 134 leading selected risk factors 162-16 occupational risks 74, 76 sexual and reproductive health 63 protective oking Adverse events, medical 79 Amphetamine use 66-67 Advertising, tobacco 125 Anaemia, iron deficiency 54, 111 Africa (AFR) Anthropological research 37, 38 Antihypertensive drug therapy 115 avoidable burden estimates 90 Antioxidants childhood and maternal undernutrition 53, 54 55-5 Antiretroviral therapy (ARv) 121-122, 123 cost-effective interventions 131, 132-133, 136-137 Anti-smoking groups 41 Argentina, men's sexual behaviour 3 nvironmental risks 68 70 Asbestos 75-76 HIVIAIDS XV, 62, 63 pact of shifting poverty distributions 51-52 Assessment, risk, see Risk assessment proved water supply/sanitation 128 Asthma, occupational 76 indoor air pollution 50 Atenolol 115, 117 joint effects of major risks leading selected risk factors 162 Attributable burden 17-18. 1 occupational risks 74 business as usual trends 89-90 sexual and reproductive health 62, 63 data inputs for estimating 19, 20, 22 berculosis 77 unsafe health care practices 79 estimation 21 AIDS, see HIvIAIDs statistics Annex Tables 8-13 Airbome particulates, work-related 73, 75-76 health care risks 79 utrition campaign 118 indoor, see Indoor air pollution tobacco control 125 particulate 68-69 Autonomy 153 urban67,68-69,72-73 Avoidable burden 17-18, 19 lcohol consumption xvi, 6, 64, 65-66 a inputs for estimating 19, 20, 22 association with poverty 50-51 definition 11. 23, 89 avoidable burden estimates 90-91. 92 estimates 88-92 estimation 23 disease burden 65, global patterns 83, 84 pact of shifting poverty distributions 51-52 population-based strategy 147 Id health services 114 risk reversibility 23 Annex table 1 role of legislation 105 ge103-104

Index 239 Page numbers in bold type indicate main discussions. INDEX Abortion 63 Absolute risk 36 approach 105, 117 Abuse (see also Childhood sexual abuse) 79–81 Acetylsalicylic acid 117 Addictive substances (see also Alcohol consumption; Illicit drug use; Tobacco use) 64–67 behavioural change 103 global patterns of risks 86, 87 interventions 123–127, 134 Adolescents interpersonal violence 80 protective factors 13 Adverse events, medical 79 Advertising, tobacco 125 Africa (AFR) abuse and violence 80 avoidable burden estimates 90 childhood and maternal undernutrition 53, 54, 55–56 cost-effective interventions 131, 132–133, 136–137 diet-related risk factors 60 environmental risks 68, 70 HIV/AIDS xv, 62, 63 impact of shifting poverty distributions 51–52 improved water supply/sanitation 128 indoor air pollution 50 joint effects of major risks 86 leading selected risk factors 162 occupational risks 74 sexual and reproductive health 62, 63 tuberculosis 77 unsafe health care practices 79 Age groups 19 AIDS, see HIV/AIDS Airborne particulates, work-related 73, 75–76 Air pollution ambient, prioritizing 150 indoor, see Indoor air pollution particulate 68–69 urban 67, 68–69, 72–73 Alcohol consumption xvi, 6, 64, 65–66 association with poverty 50–51 avoidable burden estimates 90–91, 92 changing patterns 4–5 disease burden 65, 66 global patterns 83, 84 impact of shifting poverty distributions 51–52 population-based strategy 147 risk reversibility 23 role of government/legislation 105 Alcohol dependence 65, 81 Alma-Ata Declaration (1978) 109 American Cancer Society 23, 126 Americas (AMR) abuse and violence 80, 81 addictive substances 66, 67 cost-effective interventions 131, 136–137, 138–139 diet-related risk factors 59, 60 environmental risks 68, 70 leading selected risk factors 162–163 occupational risks 74, 76 sexual and reproductive health 63 smoking 22 Amphetamine use 66–67 Anaemia, iron deficiency 54, 111 Anthropological research 37, 38 Antihypertensive drug therapy 115 Antioxidants 60 Antiretroviral therapy (ARV) 121–122, 123 Anti-smoking groups 41 Argentina, men’s sexual behaviour 35 Asbestos 75–76 Aspirin 117 Assessment, risk, see Risk assessment Asthma, occupational 76 Atenolol 115, 117 Atherosclerosis 58 Attributable burden 17–18, 19 business as usual trends 89–90 data inputs for estimating 19, 20, 22 definition 11 estimation 21 policy use 88 statistics Annex Tables 8–13 Australia health care risks 79 nutrition campaign 118 tobacco control 125 Autonomy 153 Avoidable burden 17–18, 19 data inputs for estimating 19, 20, 22 definition 11, 23, 89 estimates 88–92 estimation 23 Back pain, low 76, 129 interventions 130 Bangladesh, child health services 114 Basic indicators Annex Table 1 Behavioural change 103–104

240 The World Health Report 2002 lifestyles approach 30, 31 reversibility of risk 23 role of government/legislation 105-106 Beneficence 153 work-related risks 73, 75 Beta-blockers 115 Bill and melinda gates foundation 157 Causal chains 13-14 Binge drinking 65 Causality, assessment 20-21 Biological gradient, in assessing causation 21 Birth weight, low 15 multiple, acting together 15, 18 Blindness 55 proximal and distal 13-15, 148 Blood pressure 5 Cerebrovascular disease(see also Stroke)57, 58-59 associations with disease 57, 59 Chief medical officer 155 distributional transitions 12 Childhood mortality, reversibility of risk 23 Childhood sexual abuse(CSA)79-8 interventions to reduce 106, 114, 115-116 prioritizing 150 combined with other interventions 116-118 reversibility of risk 23 population-based approach 16, 105 Children population distributions 17, 105, 147, 140 chronic disease 15 eversibility of risk 23 combined interventions 113-114 Body mass index(BMD)60 complementary feeding 110 disease associations 59 cost-effective interventions 137, 163 high, see Obesity; Overweight population distributions 17 GORT Pattens of risks 84-85, 86, 87 BI strategy 109 Bolivia. men's sexual behaviour 35 individual-based interventions 112-11 Bone mineral density 59 integrated management of illness (MCt)113, 114 cephalopathy(BSE)40, 152, 154 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy(BSE) Inquiry mistreatment 80 Brazil undernutrition, see Undernutrition, childhood and maternal breastfeeding 56 Child underweight xiv-xV child health services 114 association with poverty 50, 53 tobacco control 125 avoidable burden estimates 89-90 Breast cancer 61, 78 Breastfeeding global patterns 83, 84-85 “ exclusive"56 interventions 110 interventions 109 110 China lack of 56 lution 69-70 association with poverty 50 leading selected risk factors 162-163 disease burden 56 nutritional transition 88 recommendations 56 Buildings 70 coking 22, 64 Burden of disease, see Disease burden CHOICE project 101, 106 Burkina Faso, perceptions of risk 38 Cholesterol 58 57,58-59 nates 91 protective psychosocial factors 13 disease burden 58-59 tobacco control 125 global patterns 83, 84 Cancer(see also Breast cancer, Lung cancer; other specific types) lowering interventions 114, 116 fruit and vegetable intake and 60-61, 118 combined with other interventions 106, 116-118 indoor air pollution and 70 population-based approach 17, 104-105, 116 population distributions 17, 147, 14 overweight/obesity and 60 reversibility of risk 23 hysical inactivity and 61 Chronic disease. childhood 15 ecial interest groups 41 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 70, 76 Cigarette smoking(see also Smoking: Tobacco use)64 Cancer Prevention Study 23 Cigar smoking 64 Cannabis 67 Cirrhosis 78 Carcinogens, work-related 73, 75 Climate Cardiovascular disease(see also Coronary heart disease; Stroke) change 67, 71-72 Coal dust exposure 75-76 cost-effective interventions 140, 164 Coal mining 34, 75-76 fruit and vegetable intake and 60-61 Cocaine use 66-67 joint effects of risk factors 24, Colon physical inactivity and 61 Commercial sex workers, see Sex workers population-based approach 16, 147, 148

240 The World Health Report 2002 lifestyles approach 30, 31 role of government/legislation 105–106 Beneficence 153 Benefits, discounting 108 Beta-blockers 115 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 157 Binge drinking 65 Biological gradient, in assessing causation 21 Birth weight, low 15 Blindness 55 Blood pressure 57 associations with disease 57, 59 distributional transitions 12 high, see High blood pressure interventions to reduce 106, 114, 115–116 combined with other interventions 116–118 population-based approach 16, 105 population distributions 17, 105, 147, 148 reversibility of risk 23 Body mass index (BMI) 60 disease associations 59 high, see Obesity; Overweight population distributions 17 Bolivia, men’s sexual behaviour 35 Bone mineral density 59 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 40, 152, 154 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Inquiry 40 Brazil breastfeeding 56 child health services 114 tobacco control 125 Breast cancer 61, 78 Breastfeeding “exclusive” 56 interventions 109, 110 lack of 56 association with poverty 50 disease burden 56 recommendations 56 BSE, see Bovine spongiform encephalopathy Buildings 70 Burden of disease, see Disease burden Burkina Faso, perceptions of risk 38 Canada protective psychosocial factors 13 tobacco control 125 Cancer (see also Breast cancer; Lung cancer; other specific types) fruit and vegetable intake and 60–61, 118 indoor air pollution and 70 occupational 75–76 overweight/obesity and 60 physical inactivity and 61 special interest groups 41 tobacco use and 64 Cancer Prevention Study 23 Cannabis 67 Carcinogens, work-related 73, 75 Cardiovascular disease (see also Coronary heart disease; Stroke) avoidable burden estimates 92 combined interventions 106, 114, 116–118 cost-effective interventions 140, 164 fruit and vegetable intake and 60–61 joint effects of risk factors 24, 85 physical inactivity and 61 population-based approach 16, 147, 148 reversibility of risk 23 smoking and 65 work-related risks 73, 75 Case management, pneumonia 113 Catastrophe, global 33 Causal chains 13–14 Causality, assessment 20–21 Causes multiple, acting together 15, 18 proximal and distal 13–15, 148 Cerebrovascular disease (see also Stroke) 57, 58–59 Chief medical officer 155 Childhood mortality, reversibility of risk 23 Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) 79–81 prioritizing 150 reversibility of risk 23 Children chronic disease 15 combined interventions 113–114 complementary feeding 110 cost-effective interventions 137, 163 global patterns of risks 84–85, 86, 87 GOBI strategy 109 individual-based interventions 112–113 integrated management of illness (IMCI) 113, 114 lead exposure 71 mistreatment 80 undernutrition, see Undernutrition, childhood and maternal Child underweight xiv–xv association with poverty 50, 53 avoidable burden estimates 89–90 disease burden 52–54 global patterns 83, 84–85 interventions 110 China air pollution 69–70 leading selected risk factors 162–163 nutritional transition 88 occupational risks 76 overweight/obesity 60 smoking 22, 64 CHOICE project 101, 106 Cholesterol 58 high xvi, 57, 58–59 avoidable burden estimates 91 disease burden 58–59 global patterns 83, 84 lowering interventions 114, 116 combined with other interventions 106, 116–118 population-based approach 17, 104–105, 116 population distributions 17, 147, 148 reversibility of risk 23 Chronic disease, childhood 15 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 70, 76 Cigarette smoking (see also Smoking; Tobacco use) 64 Cigar smoking 64 Cirrhosis 78 Climate change 67, 71–72 perceptions of risk 38 Coal dust exposure 75–76 Coal mining 34, 75–76 Cocaine use 66–67 Colon cancer 61 Commercial sex workers, see Sex workers Commission on Macroeconomics and Health 88, 108

Index Communicable diseases, see Infectious diseases Denmar Communication of risk, see Risk communication health care risks 79 Community action xvii, 167 road traffic injuries 72 Competing risks 25 Complementary feeding 110 Developed countries, see Industrialized countries noms addictive substances 64 66 for HIVIAIDS prevention 119, 120, 121, 122 antiretroviral therapy (ARv) 123 mens perceptions of risk and 35 environmental risks 71.72 ocial marketing 119 health care risks 79 Confidence intervals 24 lit81,82-84 Conflicts of interest 154 low mortality 81,83, 84 Consistency of causal associations 21 disease burden annex tables 14-15 onsumption, changing ccupational risks 74, 75 Contraception, lack of 62, 63 weight/obesity xvi, 60 patterns of risks 81-85 fresh 152 perceptions of risks 37-3 methods of generating 40 road traffic injuries 129 persistent 152 top 10 selected risk factors xiii-xiv, 102, 162-163 Cooking, with solid fuels 69-70 transferability of research findings to 43 oronary heart disease(CHD, ischaemic heart disease) safe health care practices 78-79 alcohol consur Diabetes mellitus continuous risk factor associations 59 nvironmental tobacco smoke and 66 body mass index and 59 effe: getable intake and 60-61 special interest groups 41 population-based strategies 148 risk factors 57, 58-59. 60 climate change and 72 work-related st nd 75 joint effects of multiple risks 24 Corporate businesses 31, 39, 40-41 oral rehydration therapy 112-113 Cost-effectiveness, interventions 131-137. 153-154 denutrition and 53, 55-5 Cost-effectiveness analysis 101-103 unsafe water and sanitation and 68 methods 107 Diet, changing pattens 5, 88 need for 92 Diet-related risks 6, 57-61, 85 global patterns 86, 87 technical considerat 106-108 ealthy risk factor transition 88 Cost-effectiveness ratio(CER) 136-137 interventions 135 Costs Disability-adjusted life year, see DAY Disadvantage, see Socioeconomic disadvantage 106.1 Counter-advertising, tobacco 125-1 Counterfactuals the future 104 assessing interventions 102 Disease burden (see also Attributable burden; Avoidable burden) 20 choosing attributable to selected risk factors 52-81 n rsk assessment 12, 15 stomates 11 22 Cretinism, endemic 54 ajor, statistics Annex Tables 14-16 Cuba, men s sexual behaviour 35 Cultural context risk factor relationships 20, 22 behavioural change 104 Disinfection at point of use(of water) 127, 129, 140, 163 perceptions of risk 31, Distal risks 13-15. 148 Distributions, risk factor 12 DALY (disability-adjusted life year) 12 shifting 147, 148 by cause, sex and mortality stratum Armex Table 3 transitions 8889 global patterns of attributable 87 Diuretics, thiazide 115, 117 as measure of effectiveness 106-107. 108 Dollars Data(see also Evidence intemational (IS) 106, 107 collection needs 155 extrapolations 17, 22 indirect risk estimation 16-17 nse assessment 10 internal consistency 1 Death, as measure of risk 34 Double burden 5,6 Deaths by cause, sex and mortality stratum Anner Table 2 Dread hazards for 32-33 Dehydration 112-113 Drug abuse, see llicit drug use Demographic transition 4 Drug treatment 115, 116, 117

Index 241 Communicable diseases, see Infectious diseases Communication of risk, see Risk communication Community action xvii, 167 Competing risks 25 Complementary feeding 110 with growth monitoring and promotion 110 Condoms for HIV/AIDS prevention 119, 120, 121, 122 men’s perceptions of risk and 35 social marketing 119 Confidence intervals 24 Conflicts of interest 154 Consistency of causal associations 21 Consumption, changing patterns 4–5 Contraception, lack of 62, 63 Controversies fresh 152 methods of generating 40 persistent 152 Cooking, with solid fuels 69–70 Coronary heart disease (CHD, ischaemic heart disease) alcohol consumption and 66 continuous risk factor associations 59 environmental tobacco smoke and 66 fruit and vegetable intake and 60–61 joint effects of risk factors 24 population-based strategies 148 risk factors 57, 58–59, 60 work-related stress and 75 Corporate businesses 31, 39, 40–41 Cost-effectiveness, interventions 131–137, 153–154 Cost-effectiveness analysis 101–103 methods 107 need for 92 recommendations xvii, 167 technical considerations 106–108 Cost-effectiveness ratio (CER) 136–137 Costs discounting 107–108 measuring 106, 107 Counter-advertising, tobacco 125–126 Counterfactuals in assessing interventions 102 choosing 22 in risk assessment 12, 15 Cretinism, endemic 54 Cuba, men’s sexual behaviour 35 Cultural context behavioural change 104 perceptions of risk 31, 32, 36–37 DALY (disability-adjusted life year) 12 by cause, sex and mortality stratum Annex Table 3 global patterns of attributable 87 as measure of effectiveness 106–107, 108 Data (see also Evidence) collection needs 155 extrapolations 17, 22 indirect risk estimation 16–17 internal consistency 16 Death, as measure of risk 34 Deaths by cause, sex and mortality stratum Annex Table 2 Dehydration 112–113 Demographic transition 4 Dengue fever 72 Denmark health care risks 79 road traffic injuries 72 Depression 81 Developed countries, see Industrialized countries Developing countries addictive substances 64, 66 antiretroviral therapy (ARV) 123 environmental risks 71, 72 health care risks 79 high mortality 81, 82–84 low mortality 81, 83, 84 major disease burden Annex Tables 14–15 occupational risks 74, 75 overweight/obesity xvi, 60 patterns of risks 81–85 perceptions of risks 37–38 road traffic injuries 129 top 10 selected risk factors xiii–xiv, 102, 162–163 transferability of research findings to 43 unsafe health care practices 78–79 Diabetes mellitus alcohol consumption and 66 body mass index and 59 special interest groups 41 type 2, risk factors 60, 61 Diarrhoeal disease climate change and 72 joint effects of multiple risks 24 oral rehydration therapy 112–113 undernutrition and 53, 55–56 unsafe water and sanitation and 68 Diet, changing patterns 5, 88 Diet-related risks 6, 57–61, 85 global patterns 86, 87 healthy risk factor transition 88 interventions 135 Disability-adjusted life year, see DALY Disadvantage, see Socioeconomic disadvantage Discounting 107–108 costs 107–108 the future 104 Disease burden (see also Attributable burden; Avoidable burden) 20 attributable to selected risk factors 52–81 estimates 11, 22 major, statistics Annex Tables 14–16 projected 161 risk factor relationships 20, 22 Disinfection at point of use (of water) 127, 129, 140, 163 Distal risks 13–15, 148 Distributions, risk factor 12 shifting 147, 148 transitions 12, 88–89 Diuretics, thiazide 115, 117 Dollars international (I$) 106, 107 US 106, 107 Donor agencies 42 Dose–response assessment 10 Dose–response curves 21 Double burden 5, 6 Dread, hazards for 32–33 Drug abuse, see Illicit drug use Drug treatment 115, 116, 117

242 The World Health Report 2002 Fetal programming ive substances 66 cardiovascular disease prevention 114 ood and maternal undemutrition 54, 55-56 occupational risks 75 diet-related risk factors tobacco control 125 nvironmental risks 68, 70 Flour, iron fortification 110. 111 improved water supply/sanitation 128 Folate, maternal plasma 59 Folic acid fortification 110 sexual and reproductive health 63 Food(s)(see also Diet-related risks; Nutrition unsafe health care practices 78, consumption, changing pattems 4-5 Economic context, perceptions of risk 32, 36-37 genetically modified 33, 39 Economic development, promoting sustainable 1t iron fortification 110, 111, 1 Ecstasy 66-62 umption 57-61 Education, women 6 processed(or“fast")5 Effectiveness reducing salt content xvii, 115, 140 vitamin A fortification 111-112 zinc fortification 112, 113 Engineering solutions 103, 130 Food and Drug Administration(FDA) 30 Environmental risks 67-73 Food industry 115 bal patterns of risks 86, 87 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTO 6, 41, 15 interventions 127-129 Framingham Offspring Study 24 tizing 150 Framing risks to health 36 safety standards 30 Fruit and vegetable intake xvi, 59, 60 83,84 Epidemiological transition 82, 84 se118 Equitable risks, acceptability 33 low57,60-61 Ergonomic stressors, work-related 73, 76, 129 Fuels interventions 130 fossil 68.71 Ethical principles 153-154 from, see Indoor air pollution future edical 153 discounting t risk prevention 153-154 Europe(EUR) abuse and violence 80 Gasoline, leaded 71 addictive substances 65, 66, 67 Gender, see Sex breastfeeding 56 Genetically modified foods 33, 39 diet-related risk factors 58 59, 60 Genetics 77, 78 nvironmental risks 68, 69,0681 joint effects of major risks 86 leading selected risk factors 163 G-formula 24 occupational risks 74 Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization(GAVI) 157 sexual and reproductive health 62, 63 Global burden of disease study 11, 22 moking 22 Globalization 5, 6 tuberculosis Global terms of risks 81-85 Evidence(see also Data; Information on risks Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 68 base, scientific 4, 155-156 GOALS model for evaluating interventions 101-103 GOBI strategy 109 Government Experience, learning from 32 interventions 103, 105-106, 14 Experimental evidence, causal associations 21 legislation, see Legislation Experts(see also Scientists) recommended actions xvii, 166-167 conflicts of interest 154 reducing salt intake 115-116, 140 of risk 4 gulatory controls 30, 40-4 risk communications 155 risk assessment sessment minimum acceptable levels 30 stewardship func population distributions 17 tobacco control 3-127140 theoretical minimum 12, 22 Greenhouse gases 71 Extrapolations 17, 22 Growth monitoring 109, 110 Falls, work-related 74 Haemophilus influenzae type B 157 Family planning associations 41 Hazard Fats, saturated 58 definition 11

242 The World Health Report 2002 Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) abuse and violence 80 addictive substances 66 childhood and maternal undernutrition 54, 55–56 diet-related risk factors 60 environmental risks 68, 70 improved water supply/sanitation 128 occupational risks 74 sexual and reproductive health 63 unsafe health care practices 78–79 Economic context, perceptions of risk 32, 36–37 Economic development, promoting sustainable 165 Ecstasy 66–67 Education, women 6 Effectiveness discounting 107–108 measuring 106–107 Engineering solutions 103, 130 Environmental risks 67–73 assessment 10 global patterns of risks 86, 87 interventions 127–129 prioritizing 150 safety standards 30 Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) 66 Epidemiological transition 82, 84 Equitable risks, acceptability 33 Ergonomic stressors, work-related 73, 76, 129 interventions 130 Ethical principles 153–154 Ethics medical 153 risk prevention 153–154 Europe (EUR) abuse and violence 80 addictive substances 65, 66, 67 breastfeeding 56 diet-related risk factors 58, 59, 60 environmental risks 68, 69, 72 joint effects of major risks 86–87 leading selected risk factors 163 occupational risks 74 sexual and reproductive health 62, 63 smoking 22 tuberculosis 77 Evidence (see also Data; Information on risks) base, scientific 4, 155–156 for evaluating interventions 101–103 experimental, causal associations 21 using best available 16–17 Experience, learning from 32 Experimental evidence, causal associations 21 Experts (see also Scientists) conflicts of interest 154 perceptions of risk 43 risk communications 155 Exposure assessment 10 minimum acceptable levels 30 population distributions 17 theoretical minimum 12, 22 Extrapolations 17, 22 Falls, work-related 74 Family planning associations 41 Fats, saturated 58 Fetal programming 15 Finland cardiovascular disease prevention 114 occupational risks 75 tobacco control 125 Flour, iron fortification 110, 111 Folate, maternal plasma 59 Folic acid fortification 110 Food(s) (see also Diet-related risks; Nutrition) consumption, changing patterns 4–5 genetically modified 33, 39 iron fortification 110, 111, 113 overconsumption 57–61 processed (or “fast”) 5 reducing salt content xvii, 115, 140 vitamin A fortification 111–112 zinc fortification 112, 113 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 30 Food industry 115 Fossil fuels 68, 71 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) 6, 41, 157 Framingham Offspring Study 24 Framing risks to health 36 Fruit and vegetable intake xvi, 59, 60 global patterns 83, 84 interventions to increase 118 low 57, 60–61 Fuels fossil 68, 71 solid, indoor smoke from, see Indoor air pollution Future discounting the 104 generations, risks to 33 Gasoline, leaded 71 Gender, see Sex Genetically modified foods 33, 39 Genetics 77, 78 Genetic screening 103 Genocide 80 G-formula 24 Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) 157 Global burden of disease study 11, 22 Globalization 5, 6 Global patterns of risks 81–85 Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 68 GOALS model 122 GOBI strategy 109 Governments handling conflicts 31 interventions 103, 105–106, 140 legislation, see Legislation recommended actions xvii, 166–167 reducing salt intake 115–116, 140 regulatory controls 30, 40–41 responsibility 3–4, 165–166 risk assessment 11–12 risk communications 154–155 stewardship function 10, 166 tobacco control 105, 106, 123–127, 140 Greenhouse gases 71 Growth monitoring 109, 110 Haemophilus influenzae type B 157 Hazard definition 11

Index 243 dread and risk 32-33 Housing 70 dentification 10 Hunger, alleviating 165 Health for All Declaration(Alma-Ata 1978)109 Hydrochlorothiazide 115 Health beliefs model 31 Hygiene, unsafe, see Unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene ealth care practices, unsafe 78-79, 130-131 Hypercholesterolaemia, see Cholesterol, high Health care workers, sharps injuries 73, 74 Hypertension, see High blood pressure Health education in cardiovascular disease prevention 116 Illicit drug use 64, 66-67 to prevent unsafe sex 120 disease burden 65.67 to reduce cholesterol 116 global patterns 83, 84 ealth indicators, basic Armex Table 1 reversibility of risk 23 Health promotion Immunizations, childhood 109, 157 aigns 103 India lifestyles approach 30, 31 air pollution 69-70 nutritional transition 88 Health and Safety Executive(HSE) 30 Health system Individuals definition 103 high-risk, see High-risk individuals oals102.131 responsibility for own risks 30 nfluence on behaviour 104 understanding of risk 32 Indoor air laws 124-125 loss, noise-induced 76-77 Indoor air pollution xv, 6 association with poverty 50 immunization 157 global patterns 83, 84 pational nsks 73, 74 safe health care practices and 78-79 Indoo pact of shifting poverty distributions 51 Hepatitis C Industrialized countries xvi occupational risks 74 environmental risks 71, 72 unsafe health care practices and 78-79 illicit drug use 67 erin use 66-67 major disease burden Anner Table 16 Heuristics 3 occupational risks 76 Hidden risks 152 tterns of risks 81-85 High blood pressure xvi, 57-58 avoidable burden estimates 91 top 10 selected risk factors xiv, 102, 162, 163 disease burden 57-58 drug treatment 115 Infectious diseases 4. 5 patterns 83, 84 bloodbome 78-79 pressure, interventions to reduce child underweight and 53 population-based approach 16, 17 joint effects of risk factors Highly uncertain risks 151-153 perceptions of risks 37-38 High-risk individuals unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene and 68 assessing 15 Information dissemination tobacco risks 125-126 health promotion 30 Information on risks(see also Data: Evidence interventions targeting 16, 103 ommunication, see Risk communication ardiovascular disease prevention 116, 117 distortions by special interest groups 40 cost-effectiveness analysis 101 need for 9-10 Hip fractures 59 antiretroviral therapy (AR) burden attributed to unsafe s cost-effective interventions 1 221 creasing safety 130-131, 135, 15 reruse78-79130-131 unsafe7879.130-131 health beliefs model 31 Injuries(see also Road traffic injurie terventions 118-123 laternal to child transmission (MrCD) 121, 122, 123 ccupational risks 74 self-inflicted 81 perceptions of risk 35, 38 Insecticide-treated nets 104 special interest groups 41 Integrated management of childhood illness(IMCD)113, 114 Intelligence 54, 71 unsafe health care practices and 78-79 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCO)71-72 voluntary counselling and testing (vCT)119, 120, 122-123 Intemal consistency 16 Homicide 80 Homosexual sex 121, 122, 123 xamples of successful 157 Hospitals, risks in 79 highly uncertain risks 152-153

Index 243 dread and risk 32–33 identification 10 Health for All Declaration (Alma-Ata 1978) 109 Health beliefs model 31 Health care practices, unsafe 78–79, 130–131 Health care workers, sharps injuries 73, 74 Health education in cardiovascular disease prevention 116 to prevent unsafe sex 120 to reduce cholesterol 116 Health indicators, basic Annex Table 1 Health promotion campaigns 103 lifestyles approach 30, 31 tobacco use 125 Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 30 Health systems definition 103 goals 102, 131 influence on behaviour 104 risks 79 Hearing loss, noise-induced 76–77 Hepatitis B immunization 157 occupational risks 73, 74 unsafe health care practices and 78–79 Hepatitis C occupational risks 74 unsafe health care practices and 78–79 Heroin use 66–67 Heuristics 32 Hidden risks 152 High blood pressure xvi, 57–58 avoidable burden estimates 91 causes 57 disease burden 57–58 drug treatment 115 global patterns 83, 84 interventions, see Blood pressure, interventions to reduce population-based approach 16, 17 Highly uncertain risks 151–153 High-risk individuals assessing 15 health promotion 30 interventions targeting 16, 103 cardiovascular disease prevention 116, 117 cost-effectiveness analysis 101 versus population approaches 104–105, 147 Hip fractures 59 HIV/AIDS xv antiretroviral therapy (ARV) 121–122, 123 burden attributed to unsafe sex 62–63 cost-effective interventions 137–140, 163–164 health beliefs model 31 interventions 118–123 maternal to child transmission (MTCT) 121, 122, 123 occupational risks 74 perceptions of risk 35, 38 reducing 165 special interest groups 41 tuberculosis coinfection 77 unsafe health care practices and 78–79 voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) 119, 120, 122–123 Homicide 80 Homosexual sex 121, 122, 123 Hospitals, risks in 79 Housing 70 Hunger, alleviating 165 Hydrochlorothiazide 115 Hygiene, unsafe, see Unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene Hypercholesterolaemia, see Cholesterol, high Hypertension, see High blood pressure Illicit drug use 64, 66–67 disease burden 65, 67 global patterns 83, 84 reversibility of risk 23 Immunizations, childhood 109, 157 India air pollution 69–70 nutritional transition 88 smoking 64 Individuals high-risk, see High-risk individuals responsibility for own risks 30 understanding of risk 32 Indoor air laws 124–125 Indoor air pollution xv, 67 association with poverty 50 global patterns 83, 84 impact of shifting poverty distributions 51 Indoor environmental risks 70 Industrialized countries xvi environmental risks 71, 72 illicit drug use 67 major disease burden Annex Table 16 occupational risks 76 patterns of risks 81–85 tobacco use 64 top 10 selected risk factors xiv, 102, 162, 163 Inequality, high levels 80 Inequities, reducing 165 Infectious diseases 4, 5 bloodborne 78–79 child underweight and 53 joint effects of risk factors 85 perceptions of risks 37–38 unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene and 68 Information dissemination, tobacco risks 125–126 Information on risks (see also Data; Evidence) communication, see Risk communication distortions by special interest groups 40 framing (presentation) 36 need for 9–10 Injecting drug users 67, 120 Injections, medical increasing safety 130–131, 135, 150 overuse 78–79, 130–131 unsafe 78–79, 130–131 Injuries (see also Road traffic injuries) burden, see Disease burden reversibility of risk 23 self-inflicted 81 work-related risks 73, 74–75 Insecticide-treated nets 104 Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) 113, 114 Intelligence 54, 71 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 71–72 Internal consistency 16 International action examples of successful 157 highly uncertain risks 152–153

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《卫生经济学》课程参考文献（WHO年度报告）：World Health Report 2002_Reducing Risk Promoting Healthy Life_LIST OF MEMBER STATES BY WHO REGION AND MORTALITY STRATUM