496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/06 22: 25 Page v SEVENTH EDITION Materials science and engineering An Introduction William D. Callister. Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The Unirersity of U with special contributions b1 David g rethwisch John Wiley Sons Ine
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa S EVENTH E DITION 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 22:25 Page v
496T fm i-xxvi 1/11/06 23: 05 Page vi Front Cover: A unit cell for diamond(bluegray spheres represent carbon atoms), which is positioned above the temperature-versus-loganithm pressure phase diagram for carbon; highli in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase Back Cover: Atomic structure for graphite: here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms. The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton MARKETING DIRECTOR Frank Lyman SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Ken Santor SENIOR DESIGNER Kevin Murphy COVER ART TEXT DESIGN Michael jung SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COMPOSITOR Techbooks/GTS. York. PA ILLUSTRATION STUDIO Techbooks/GTS. York. PA This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS, York, PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor This book is printed on acid free paper. e Copyright o 2007 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley Sons, Inc, 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212)850-6011 fax(212)850-6008,e-Mail:PermReo@wIley.com To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister, William D. 1940- Materials science and engineering: an introduction /William D. Callister, Jr-7th ed Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN13:978-0-471-73696-7( cloth ISBN-10:0-471-73696-1( cloth) 1. Materials. I. Title TA403.C232007 620.11-dc22 005054228 Printed in the United States of america 10987654321
Front Cover: A unit cell for diamond (blue-gray spheres represent carbon atoms), which is positioned above the temperature-versus-logarithm pressure phase diagram for carbon; highlighted in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase. Back Cover: Atomic structure for graphite; here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms. The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton MARKETING DIRECTOR Frank Lyman SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Ken Santor SENIOR DESIGNER Kevin Murphy COVER ART Roy Wiemann TEXT DESIGN Michael Jung SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COMPOSITOR Techbooks/GTS, York, PA ILLUSTRATION STUDIO Techbooks/GTS, York, PA This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS, York, PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM. To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister, William D., 1940- Materials science and engineering : an introduction / William D. Callister, Jr.—7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-471-73696-7 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-471-73696-1 (cloth) 1. Materials. I. Title. TA403.C23 2007 620.1’1—dc22 2005054228 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/11/06 23:05 Page vi
496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/0603: 19 Page xv Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xXiii 1. Introduction I Learning Object 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1. 2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of materials 5 .5 Advanced materials 11 1.6 Modern materials Needs 12 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 2. 8 Molecules 32 ummary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 35 Learning Objectives 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 3.5 Density Computations 45 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46
• xv Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii 1. Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of Materials 5 1.5 Advanced Materials 11 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 12 References 13 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 2.8 Molecules 32 Summary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 38 Learning Objectives 39 3.1 Introduction 39 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 39 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39 3.3 Unit Cells 40 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 3.5 Density Computations 45 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 03:19 Page xv
496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/06 02: 56 Page xvi Xv· Contents 7 Crystal Systems 46 5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 CRYSTALLOGRAPIlIC POINTS. DIRECTIONS. AND 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 PLANES 49 5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125 3. 8 Point Coordinates 4 Summary 125 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51 Important Terms and Concepts 126 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 5 References 126 Questions and Problems 126 3.11 Linear and Planar densities 60 Design Problems 129 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCHYSTALLINE MATERIALS 63 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131 3. 13 Single Crystals 63 Learning Objectives 132 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64 6.1 Introduction 132 3.15 Anisotropy 64 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137 Crystal Structures 66 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71 140 ma八 Important Terms and Concepts 73 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 erences PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143 Ouestions and Problems 74 6.6 Tensile Properties 144 6.7 True Stress and Strain 151 4. Imperfections in Solids 5o 6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 Learning Objectives 81 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional 4.1 Introduction 81 Deformation 154 POINT DEFECTS 81 6.10 Hardness 155 4.2 Vacancies and self-Interstitials 81 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY 4.3 Impurities in Solids 83 FACTORs 161 4.4 Specification of Composition 85 6. 11 Variability of Material Properties 161 MISCELLANEOUS LMIPERFECTIONS 88 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163 4.5 Dislocations-Linear defects 88 4.6 Interfacial Defects 92 Important Terms and Concepts 166 4.7 Bulk or volume defects 96 References 1 4.8 Atomic vibrations 9 Questions and Problems 166 Design Problems 172 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 9 4.9 General 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98 Z. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 12+ 4.11 Grain Size determination 102 Learning Objectives 175 Important Terms and Concepts 105 7.1 Introduction 175 eferences 10 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC Questions and Problems 106 Design Problems 108 DEFORMATION 175 7.2 Basic Concepts 175 5. Diffusion 109 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 7.4 Slip Systems 179 Learning Objectives 110 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 18 5.1 Introduction 110 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline 5.2 Diffusion mechanisms 111 Materials 185 5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185
3.7 Crystal Systems 46 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 49 3.8 Point Coordinates 49 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 55 3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 60 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 63 3.13 Single Crystals 63 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64 3.15 Anisotropy 64 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 66 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71 Summary 72 Important Terms and Concepts 73 References 73 Questions and Problems 74 4. Imperfections in Solids 80 Learning Objectives 81 4.1 Introduction 81 POINT DEFECTS 81 4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81 4.3 Impurities in Solids 83 4.4 Specification of Composition 85 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 88 4.5 Dislocations–Linear Defects 88 4.6 Interfacial Defects 92 4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 96 4.8 Atomic Vibrations 96 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 97 4.9 General 97 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98 4.11 Grain Size Determination 102 Summary 104 Important Terms and Concepts 105 References 105 Questions and Problems 106 Design Problems 108 5. Diffusion 109 Learning Objectives 110 5.1 Introduction 110 5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 111 5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112 5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125 Summary 125 Important Terms and Concepts 126 References 126 Questions and Problems 126 Design Problems 129 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131 Learning Objectives 132 6.1 Introduction 132 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137 6.4 Anelasticity 140 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143 6.6 Tensile Properties 144 6.7 True Stress and Strain 151 6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 154 6.10 Hardness 155 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 161 6.11 Variability of Material Properties 161 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163 Summary 165 Important Terms and Concepts 166 References 166 Questions and Problems 166 Design Problems 172 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 174 Learning Objectives 175 7.1 Introduction 175 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 175 7.2 Basic Concepts 175 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 7.4 Slip Systems 179 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 181 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials 185 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185 xvi • Contents 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page xvi
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xvi: MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING 9.2 Solubility Limit 254 M 7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size 9.4 Microstructure 255 Reduction 18 9.5 Phase Equilibria 255 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase 7.10 Strain Hardening 191 Diagrams 256 RECOVERY RECRYSTALLIZATION. AND GRAIN BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258 9.7 Binary Isomorphous Syste 7.1 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 2( 7.12 Recrystallization 195 9.9 Development of Microstructure in 7. 13 Grain Growth 200 Isomorphous Alloys 264 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Important Terms and Concepts 202 Alloys 268 References 202 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 Questions and Problems 202 Design Problems 206 9.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 276 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having s. Failure 202 Intermediate Phases or Learning Objectives 208 Compounds 282 8.1 Introduction 208 9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 9.15 Congruent Phase FRACTURE 208 Transformations 286 8.2 Fundamentals of fracture 208 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase 8.3 Ductile Fracture 209 Diagrams 287 8.4 Brittle fracture 211 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 THE IRON-CARBON SYSTEM 290 8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223 9.18 The Iron-Iron Carbide(Fe-Fe3C)Phase FATIGUE 227 Diagram 290 8.7 Cyclic Stresses 9.19 Development of Microstructure in 8. 8 The s-N Curve Iron-Carbon Alloys 293 8.9 Crack Initiation and propagation 9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying 8.10 Factors That A ffect fatig 232 Elements 301 8.11 Environmental Effects Summary 302 CREEP 238 Important Terms and Concepts 303 8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238 References 303 Questions and Problems 304 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 10. Phase Transformations in Metals 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 242 Development of Microstructure Summary 243 and Alteration of Mechanical Important Terms and Concepts 245 31 Questions and Problems 246 Learning Objectives 312 10.1 Introduction 312 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312 9. Phase diagrams 2.52 10.2 Basic Concepts 312 10.3 The Kinetics of phase Learning Objectives 253 Transformations 313 9.1 Introduction 253 10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium DEFINTTIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 25:
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 188 7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 188 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 7.10 Strain Hardening 191 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 194 7.11 Recovery 195 7.12 Recrystallization 195 7.13 Grain Growth 200 Summary 201 Important Terms and Concepts 202 References 202 Questions and Problems 202 Design Problems 206 8. Failure 207 Learning Objectives 208 8.1 Introduction 208 FRACTURE 208 8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 208 8.3 Ductile Fracture 209 8.4 Brittle Fracture 211 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223 FATIGUE 227 8.7 Cyclic Stresses 228 8.8 The S–N Curve 229 8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232 8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234 8.11 Environmental Effects 237 CREEP 238 8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 242 Summary 243 Important Terms and Concepts 245 References 246 Questions and Problems 246 Design Problems 250 9. Phase Diagrams 252 Learning Objectives 253 9.1 Introduction 253 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 253 Contents • xvii 9.2 Solubility Limit 254 9.3 Phases 254 9.4 Microstructure 255 9.5 Phase Equilibria 255 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 256 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258 9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 258 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260 9.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 264 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 268 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 9.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 276 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 282 9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 9.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 286 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams 287 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 290 9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 290 9.19 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 293 9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 301 Summary 302 Important Terms and Concepts 303 References 303 Questions and Problems 304 10. Phase Transformations in Metals: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 311 Learning Objectives 312 10.1 Introduction 312 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312 10.2 Basic Concepts 312 10.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 313 10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium States 324 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xvii
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xviii xvi· Contents MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANCES IN 12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439 IRON-CARBON ALLOYS 324 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 42 10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 32 10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation 12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442 12.9 Stress-Strain behavior 447 Diagrams 335 12.10 Mechanisms of plastic 10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Deformation 449 12.11 Miscellaneous mechanical 10.8 Tempered Martensite 343 Considerations 451 10.9 Review of phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron-Carbon Important Terms and Concepts 454 Alloys 346 References 454 Questions and Problems 455 Important Terms and Concepts 351 Design Problems 459 eferences 352 Questions and Problems 352 Design Problems 356 13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 460 11. Applications and Processing of Learning Objectives 461 Metal Alloy s 358 13.1 Introduction 461 Learning Objectives 359 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF 11.1 Introduction 359 CERAMICS 461 13 Glasses 461 TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 359 Glass-Ceramics 462 11.2 Ferrous Alloys 359 13.4 Clay Products 463 11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 372 13.5 Refractories 464 FABRICATION OF METALS 382 13.6 Abrasives 466 11.4 Forming Operations 383 13.7 Cements 467 1.5 13.8 Advanced Ceramics 468 11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 386 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OR THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 387 CERAMICS 471 11.7 Annealing Processes 388 13.9 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses 11. 8 Heat Treatment of Steels 390 and Glass-Ceramics 471 11.9 Precipitation Hardening 402 13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 476 Important Terms and Concepts 409 13.11 Powder Pressing 481 13. 12 Tape Casting 484 Questions and Problems 410 Summary 484 Design Problems 411 Important Terms and Concepts 486 References 486 12. Structures and Properties of Questions and Problems 486 Design Problem 488 Ceramics f1+ Learning Objectives 415 14. Polymer Structures 489 12.1 Introduction 415 Learning Objectives 490 CERAMIC STRUCTURES 415 14.1 Introduction 4 12.2 Crystal Structures 415 14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490 12.3 Silicate Ceramics 426 14.3 Polymer Molecules 492 12. 4 Carbon 430 14.4 The Chemistry of polymer 12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 4.34 Molecules 493 12.6 Diffusion in Ionic materials 438 14.5 Molecular Weight 497
xviii • Contents MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 324 10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 325 10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams 335 10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 339 10.8 Tempered Martensite 343 10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 346 Summary 350 Important Terms and Concepts 351 References 352 Questions and Problems 352 Design Problems 356 11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 358 Learning Objectives 359 11.1 Introduction 359 TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 359 11.2 Ferrous Alloys 359 11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 372 FABRICATION OF METALS 382 11.4 Forming Operations 383 11.5 Casting 384 11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 386 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 387 11.7 Annealing Processes 388 11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels 390 11.9 Precipitation Hardening 402 Summary 407 Important Terms and Concepts 409 References 409 Questions and Problems 410 Design Problems 411 12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 414 Learning Objectives 415 12.1 Introduction 415 CERAMIC STRUCTURES 415 12.2 Crystal Structures 415 12.3 Silicate Ceramics 426 12.4 Carbon 430 12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 434 12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 438 12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 442 12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442 12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 447 12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation 449 12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations 451 Summary 453 Important Terms and Concepts 454 References 454 Questions and Problems 455 Design Problems 459 13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 460 Learning Objectives 461 13.1 Introduction 461 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS 461 13.2 Glasses 461 13.3 Glass–Ceramics 462 13.4 Clay Products 463 13.5 Refractories 464 13.6 Abrasives 466 13.7 Cements 467 13.8 Advanced Ceramics 468 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS 471 13.9 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass–Ceramics 471 13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 476 13.11 Powder Pressing 481 13.12 Tape Casting 484 Summary 484 Important Terms and Concepts 486 References 486 Questions and Problems 486 Design Problem 488 14. Polymer Structures 489 Learning Objectives 490 14.1 Introduction 490 14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490 14.3 Polymer Molecules 492 14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 493 14.5 Molecular Weight 497 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xviii
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xix Contents·xi 14.6 Molecular Shape 500 POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 560 14.7 Molecular Structure 501 15.20 Polymerization 561 14.8 Molecular Configurations 503 15.21 Polymer Additives 563 14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting 15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565 Polymers 506 15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 567 14.10 Copolymers 507 15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 56 14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 508 Summary 569 14.12 Polymer Crystals 512 Important Terms and Concepts 571 14.13 Defects in Polymers 514 References 577 14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515 Questions and Problems 572 Summary 517 Important Terms and Concepts 519 References 519 Questions and Problems 519 16. Composites 52 15. Characteristics, Applications, and 16.1 Introduction 578 Processing of Polymers 528 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 580 arning object 16.2 Large-Particle Composites 5 5.1 Introduction 524 16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened MECHANICAL BEHLAVIOR OF POLYMERS 524 ites 5.2 Stress-Strain Behavior 524 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 585 5.3 Macroscopic Deformation 527 16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 585 15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 527 16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and 15.5 Fracture of Polymers 532 Concentration 586 15.6 Miscellaneous mechanical 16.6 The Fiber phase 595 Characteristics 533 16.7 The Matrix Phase 596 MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR 16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597 STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535 16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 603 15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline 16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605 16.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites 606 Polymers 535 5. 8 Factors That Influence the mechanical 16.12 Hybrid Composites 607 Properties of Semicrystalline 16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 538 Composites 60 15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 541 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 610 CRYSTALLIZATION. MELTING. AND GLASS 16.14 Laminar Composites 610 TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544 16.15 Sandwich Panels 611 5.10 Crystallization 544 Important Terms and Concepts 615 15.11 Melting 545 References 616 15.12 The Glass Transition 545 Questions and Problems 616 15.13 Melting and Glass Transition Design Problems 619 Temperatures 546 5.14 Factors That Influence Melting and glass Transition Temperatures 547 12. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 621 15.15 Plastics 549 Learning Objectives 622 5.16 Elastomers 552 17.1 Introduction 622 5.17 Fibers 554 COBROSION OF METALS 622 15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 555 17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 623 15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556 17.3 Corrosion Rates 630
Contents • xix 14.6 Molecular Shape 500 14.7 Molecular Structure 501 14.8 Molecular Configurations 503 14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 506 14.10 Copolymers 507 14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 508 14.12 Polymer Crystals 512 14.13 Defects in Polymers 514 14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515 Summary 517 Important Terms and Concepts 519 References 519 Questions and Problems 519 15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 523 Learning Objectives 524 15.1 Introduction 524 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 524 15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 524 15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 527 15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 527 15.5 Fracture of Polymers 532 15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical Characteristics 533 MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535 15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 535 15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 538 15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 541 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544 15.10 Crystallization 544 15.11 Melting 545 15.12 The Glass Transition 545 15.13 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 546 15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 547 POLYMER TYPES 549 15.15 Plastics 549 15.16 Elastomers 552 15.17 Fibers 554 15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 555 15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556 POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 560 15.20 Polymerization 561 15.21 Polymer Additives 563 15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565 15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 567 15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 568 Summary 569 Important Terms and Concepts 571 References 571 Questions and Problems 572 Design Questions 576 16. Composites 577 Learning Objectives 578 16.1 Introduction 578 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 580 16.2 Large-Particle Composites 580 16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 584 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 585 16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 585 16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 586 16.6 The Fiber Phase 595 16.7 The Matrix Phase 596 16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597 16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 603 16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605 16.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 606 16.12 Hybrid Composites 607 16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 607 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 610 16.14 Laminar Composites 610 16.15 Sandwich Panels 611 Summary 613 Important Terms and Concepts 615 References 616 Questions and Problems 616 Design Problems 619 17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 621 Learning Objectives 622 17.1 Introduction 622 CORROSION OF METALS 622 17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 623 17.3 Corrosion Rates 630 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xix
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xx xx· Contents 17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 631 18.20 Types of Polarization 708 17.5 Passivity 638 18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric 17.6 Environmental Effects 640 Constant 709 17.7 Forms of Corrosion 640 18.22 Dielectric Strength 711 17.8 Corrosion Environments 648 18.23 Dielectric Materials 711 17.9 Corrosion Prevention 649 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 17.10 Oxidation 651 MATERIALS 711 CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 654 18.24 Ferroelectricity 711 DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 65. 18.25 Piezoelectricity 712 17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 655 Summary 713 17. 12 Bond Rupture 657 Important Terms and Concepts 715 17.13 Weathering 658 References 715 Questions and Problems 716 Design Problems 720 Important Terms and Concepts 660 References 661 Questions and Problems s219. Thermal Properties I Design Problems 644 Learning Objectives W2 19.1 Introduction W2 18. Electrical Properties 665 19.2 Heat Capacity W2 Learning Objectives 666 19.3 Thermal Expansion W4 18.1 Introduction 666 19.4 Thermal Conductivity W7 19.5 Thermal Stresses W12 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 666 Summary W14 18.2 Ohms Law 666 Important Terms and Concepts W15 18.3 Electrical Conductivity 667 References w15 18.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 66 Questions and Problems w15 18.5 Energy Band Structures in Design Problems W17 Solids 668 18.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and 20. Magnetic Properties w19 Atomic Bonding Models 671 18.7 Electron Mobility 673 Learning Objectives W20 18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 674 20.1 Introduction w20 18.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial 20.2 Basic Concepts W20 Alloys 67 20.3 Diamagnetism and SEMICONDUCTIVITY 679 Paramagnetism W24 20.4 Ferromagnetism W26 18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 679 20.5 Antiferromagnetism and 18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 682 Ferrimagnetism W28 18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier 20.6 The Influence of Temperature on Concentration 686 Magnetic Behavior W32 18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 688 20.7 Domains and Hysteresis W33 18.14 The hall Effect 692 20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy W37 18.15 Semiconductor devices 694 0.9 Soft ma ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS 20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials w41 AND IN POLYMERS 700 20.11 Magnetic Storage W44 18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 701 onductivity w47 18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 701 Summary w50 DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 02 Important Terms and Concepts W52 References W52 18.18 Capacitance 703 Questions and Problems W53 18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 704 Design Problems w56
xx • Contents 17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 631 17.5 Passivity 638 17.6 Environmental Effects 640 17.7 Forms of Corrosion 640 17.8 Corrosion Environments 648 17.9 Corrosion Prevention 649 17.10 Oxidation 651 CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 654 DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 655 17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 655 17.12 Bond Rupture 657 17.13 Weathering 658 Summary 659 Important Terms and Concepts 660 References 661 Questions and Problems 661 Design Problems 644 18. Electrical Properties 665 Learning Objectives 666 18.1 Introduction 666 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 666 18.2 Ohm’s Law 666 18.3 Electrical Conductivity 667 18.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 668 18.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 668 18.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 671 18.7 Electron Mobility 673 18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 674 18.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 677 SEMICONDUCTIVITY 679 18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 679 18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 682 18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 686 18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 688 18.14 The Hall Effect 692 18.15 Semiconductor Devices 694 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 700 18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 701 18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 701 DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 702 18.18 Capacitance 703 18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 704 18.20 Types of Polarization 708 18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 709 18.22 Dielectric Strength 711 18.23 Dielectric Materials 711 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS 711 18.24 Ferroelectricity 711 18.25 Piezoelectricity 712 Summary 713 Important Terms and Concepts 715 References 715 Questions and Problems 716 Design Problems 720 19. Thermal Properties W1 Learning Objectives W2 19.1 Introduction W2 19.2 Heat Capacity W2 19.3 Thermal Expansion W4 19.4 Thermal Conductivity W7 19.5 Thermal Stresses W12 Summary W14 Important Terms and Concepts W15 References W15 Questions and Problems W15 Design Problems W17 20. Magnetic Properties W19 Learning Objectives W20 20.1 Introduction W20 20.2 Basic Concepts W20 20.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism W24 20.4 Ferromagnetism W26 20.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism W28 20.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior W32 20.7 Domains and Hysteresis W33 20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy W37 20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials W38 20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials W41 20.11 Magnetic Storage W44 20.12 Superconductivity W47 Summary W50 Important Terms and Concepts W52 References W52 Questions and Problems W53 Design Problems W56 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xx
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xxi Contents·xxi 21. Optical Properties W5 22.8 Testing Procedure and Results W102 Learning Objectives W58 22.9Di 21.1 Introduction W58 ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT W108 BASIC CONCEPTS W58 22.10 Anatomy of the Hip Joint W108 21.2 Electromagnetic Radiation W58 22.11 Material Requirements W1ll 21.3 Light Interactions with Solids W60 22 12 Materials Employed W112 21.4 Atomic and electronic CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING W115 Interactions W61 22 13 Introduction W115 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS W62 22.14 Assessment of cPc glove materials to Protect Against Exposure to Methyler OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS W63 Chloride W115 21.5 Refraction W63 MATERLALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 21.6 Reflection w65 PACKACEs W119 21.7 Absorption W65 21. 8 Transmission W68 22 15 Introduction W119 21.9 Color w69 22.16 Leadframe Design and Materials W120 22.17 Die Bonding W121 21.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators W71 22.18 Wire Bonding W124 22.19 Package Encapsulation W125 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA W72 22.20 Tape Automated Bonding W127 2111 Luminescence W72 21.12 Photoconductivity W72 References W130 21.13 Lasers W75 Design Questions and Problems W131 21.14 Optical Fibers in Communications W79 Summary w8 223. Economic, Environmental, and Important Terms and Concepts w83 Societal issues in materials science References W84 and Engineering 135 Questions and Problems W84 esign Problem W85 Learning Objectives W136 23.1 Introduction W136 22. Materials Selectio nd Design ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS W136 Considerations s6 23.2 Component Design W137 23.3 Materials W137 Learning Objectives W87 22.1 Introduction W87 23. 4 Manufacturing Techniques W137 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT W8 CONSIDERATIONS W137 22.2 Strength Considerations-Torsionally 23.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Stressed Shaft W88 Engineering W140 22.3 Other Property Considerations and the Summary W143 eferences 143 Final decision W93 Design Question W144 2.4 Mechanics of Spring Deformation w94 Appendi r A The International System of 2.5 Valve S Units A1 Requirements w95 22.6 One Commonly Employed Steel Appendix B Properties of Selected alloy w98 Materials 43 FAILURE OF AN AUTOMOBILE REAR B. 1 Density A3 AXLE W101 B 2 Modulus of Elasticity A6 2.7 Introduction W10 Pc Ratio A10
Contents • xxi 21. Optical Properties W57 Learning Objectives W58 21.1 Introduction W58 BASIC CONCEPTS W58 21.2 Electromagnetic Radiation W58 21.3 Light Interactions with Solids W60 21.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions W61 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS W62 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS W63 21.5 Refraction W63 21.6 Reflection W65 21.7 Absorption W65 21.8 Transmission W68 21.9 Color W69 21.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators W71 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA W72 21.11 Luminescence W72 21.12 Photoconductivity W72 21.13 Lasers W75 21.14 Optical Fibers in Communications W79 Summary W82 Important Terms and Concepts W83 References W84 Questions and Problems W84 Design Problem W85 22. Materials Selection and Design Considerations W86 Learning Objectives W87 22.1 Introduction W87 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT W87 22.2 Strength Considerations–Torsionally Stressed Shaft W88 22.3 Other Property Considerations and the Final Decision W93 AUTOMOTIVE VALVE SPRING W94 22.4 Mechanics of Spring Deformation W94 22.5 Valve Spring Design and Material Requirements W95 22.6 One Commonly Employed Steel Alloy W98 FAILURE OF AN AUTOMOBILE REAR AXLE W101 22.7 Introduction W101 22.8 Testing Procedure and Results W102 22.9 Discussion W108 ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT W108 22.10 Anatomy of the Hip Joint W108 22.11 Material Requirements W111 22.12 Materials Employed W112 CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING W115 22.13 Introduction W115 22.14 Assessment of CPC Glove Materials to Protect Against Exposure to Methylene Chloride W115 MATERIALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGES W119 22.15 Introduction W119 22.16 Leadframe Design and Materials W120 22.17 Die Bonding W121 22.18 Wire Bonding W124 22.19 Package Encapsulation W125 22.20 Tape Automated Bonding W127 Summary W129 References W130 Design Questions and Problems W131 23. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering W135 Learning Objectives W136 23.1 Introduction W136 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS W136 23.2 Component Design W137 23.3 Materials W137 23.4 Manufacturing Techniques W137 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS W137 23.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering W140 Summary W143 References W143 Design Question W144 Appendix A The International System of Units A1 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A3 B.1 Density A3 B.2 Modulus of Elasticity A6 B.3 Poisson’s Ratio A10 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xxi
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xxii xxi· Contents B 4 Strength and ductility All IppendizE Glass Transition and Melting ,5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness A16 emperatures for Common Polymeric B 6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Materials 4/ Expansion Al7 B 7 Thermal Conductivity A21 B 8 Specific Heat A24 Glossary GO .9 Electrical Resistivity A26 Answers to Selected Problems S/ B10 Metal Alloy Compositie Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected engineering materials 431 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for ommon Polymers 3
xxii • Contents B.4 Strength and Ductility A11 B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness A16 B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion A17 B.7 Thermal Conductivity A21 B.8 Specific Heat A24 B.9 Electrical Resistivity A26 B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions A29 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A31 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A37 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A41 Glossary G0 Answers to Selected Problems S1 Index I1 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xxii