How to write a paper Mike Ashby Engineering Department Trumpington Street,Cambridge CB2 IPZ,UK 7h Edition,August 2011 人 出3HdKW How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 1 MFA, 16/08/11 How to write a paper Mike Ashby Engineering Department Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 7th Edition, August 2011
How to write a paper Mike Ashby, Engineering Department,University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 IPZ,UK hedition,August 2011 This brief manual gives guidance in writing a paper about your research.Most of the advice applies equally to your thesis or to writing a research proposal.The content of the paper reflects the kind of work you have done:experimental,theoretical,computational.I have used, as a model,a typical Materials project:one combining experiment with modeling and computation to explain some aspect of material behavior. Sections I to 8 give guidelines for clear writing with brief examples.The Appendix contains longer examples of effective and ineffective writing.The manual is prescriptive-it has to be,if it is to be short.It is designed to help those struggling with their first paper,or those who have written several but find it difficult.Certain sections may seem to you to be elementary;they are there because,to others,they are not.Section 8,on Style,is open-ended, the starting point for more exciting things. Contents 1 The Design P2 2 The Market-Who are your readers? p3 3 The Concept-Making a Concept-sheet p4 4 Embodiment-The first draft p7 5 Detail I-Grammar p12 6 Detail II-Spelling p15 7 Detail III-Punctuation p15 8 Detail IV-Style P19 9 Further Reading p24 10 Appendix:Examples of effective and ineffective writing P26 How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 2 MFA, 16/08/11 How to write a paper Mike Ashby, Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 7th edition, August 2011 This brief manual gives guidance in writing a paper about your research. Most of the advice applies equally to your thesis or to writing a research proposal. The content of the paper reflects the kind of work you have done: experimental, theoretical, computational. I have used, as a model, a typical Materials project: one combining experiment with modeling and computation to explain some aspect of material behavior. Sections 1 to 8 give guidelines for clear writing with brief examples. The Appendix contains longer examples of effective and ineffective writing. The manual is prescriptive – it has to be, if it is to be short. It is designed to help those struggling with their first paper, or those who have written several but find it difficult. Certain sections may seem to you to be elementary; they are there because, to others, they are not. Section 8, on Style, is open-ended, the starting point for more exciting things. Contents 1 The Design p 2 2 The Market – Who are your readers? p 3 3 The Concept – Making a Concept-sheet p 4 4 Embodiment – The first draft p 7 5 Detail I – Grammar p 12 6 Detail II – Spelling p 15 7 Detail III – Punctuation p 15 8 Detail IV – Style p 19 9 Further Reading p 24 10 Appendix: Examples of effective and ineffective writing p 26
1 THE DESIGN Well written papers are read,remembered,cited.Poorly written papers are not. To write well,you need a design.Like any design activity,there are a number of steps (Figure 1).I've used the language of engineering design here-it fits well. (a)The Market Need.What is the purpose of the document?Who will read it?How will the reader use it?The answers help you decide the length,the level of detail,the style. (b)The Concept.Good writing starts with a plan.Writers have different ways of developing plans.I find the concept-sheet(Section 3,below)is a good way to do it. Market need Identify your readers Concept Construct the master-plan Embodiment Make the first draft —Edi Detail Refine:clarity,readability,style Product The visual presentation Figure I.The Design Process.Designing a paper is like designing anything else:there are five essential steps. (c) (d)The Embodiment.The embodiment is the first draft.Get the facts down on paper without worrying about style;make drafts of each section;develop the calculations;sketch the figures;assemble references. (e)Detail.Now comes the crafting:clarity,balance,readability:in a word-style. (f)The End-Product.Appearance is important:good layout,clear headings,well-designed figures. The Sections that follow expand on each of these in turn How to write a paper J MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 3 MFA, 16/08/11 1 THE DESIGN Well written papers are read, remembered, cited. Poorly written papers are not. To write well, you need a design. Like any design activity, there are a number of steps (Figure 1). I’ve used the language of engineering design here – it fits well. (a) The Market Need. What is the purpose of the document? Who will read it? How will the reader use it? The answers help you decide the length, the level of detail, the style. (b) The Concept. Good writing starts with a plan. Writers have different ways of developing plans. I find the concept-sheet (Section 3, below) is a good way to do it. (c) (d) The Embodiment. The embodiment is the first draft. Get the facts down on paper without worrying about style; make drafts of each section; develop the calculations; sketch the figures; assemble references. (e) Detail. Now comes the crafting: clarity, balance, readability; in a word – style. (f) The End-Product. Appearance is important: good layout, clear headings, well-designed figures. The Sections that follow expand on each of these in turn. Figure 1. The Design Process. Designing a paper is like designing anything else: there are five essential steps
2 THE MARKET-Who are your readers? Your market is your readers.Put yourself in their shoes:what,if you were they,would you wish to find? The readers of your thesis are your examiners.They expect details of all relevant parts of your research:why you did it,its background,your thinking,what you did,your conclusions and your views on where it is going.They don't want the irrelevant parts-details of how standard equipment works,for instance.Find out as much as you can about content and format from your supervisor and other students,and look at some recent(successful)theses to get a feel for the product this market expects. A paper is read by one or more skilled referees,and,if accepted,by a scientifically- informed audience.This manual focuses on writing papers.The pages that follow explain how this market should be addressed. A research proposal usually addresses two markets.One is the funding agency:the EPSRC,the EU,another Government Agencies,or a Charity.They will look for a match between their priorities and yours.The other is the referees that the funding agency will use; they are charged with judging quality,promise and relevance. Hardest to write is a popular article,addressing an audience who is intelligent-one should always assume that-but who may know nothing of your subject.Here style,always important,must be fine-tuned to meet their needs.More on style in Section 8. Make no mistake.Write poorly and you'll bore,exasperate and ultimately lose your readers.Write well,and they'll respond in the way you plan. Table 1:Markets for technical writing What writing？ Who are the readers？ How will they use it？ Thesis Examiners To judge and rank your work Paper Referees To check originality.quality,suitability Scientifically-literate public To extract information To judge if your aims match the priorities of the Research proposal The funding body and... funding body Its referees To judge quality and promise of the work Popular article Intelligent but un-informed To be introduced to a new field public To be entertained How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 4 MFA, 16/08/11 2 THE MARKET –Who are your readers? Your market is your readers. Put yourself in their shoes: what, if you were they, would you wish to find? The readers of your thesis are your examiners. They expect details of all relevant parts of your research: why you did it, its background, your thinking, what you did, your conclusions and your views on where it is going. They don’t want the irrelevant parts – details of how standard equipment works, for instance. Find out as much as you can about content and format from your supervisor and other students, and look at some recent (successful) theses to get a feel for the product this market expects. A paper is read by one or more skilled referees, and, if accepted, by a scientificallyinformed audience. This manual focuses on writing papers. The pages that follow explain how this market should be addressed. A research proposal usually addresses two markets. One is the funding agency: the EPSRC, the EU, another Government Agencies, or a Charity. They will look for a match between their priorities and yours. The other is the referees that the funding agency will use; they are charged with judging quality, promise and relevance. Hardest to write is a popular article, addressing an audience who is intelligent – one should always assume that – but who may know nothing of your subject. Here style, always important, must be fine-tuned to meet their needs. More on style in Section 8. Make no mistake. Write poorly and you’ll bore, exasperate and ultimately lose your readers. Write well, and they’ll respond in the way you plan. Table 1: Markets for technical writing What writing ? Who are the readers ? How will they use it ? Thesis Examiners To judge and rank your work Paper Referees Scientifically-literate public To check originality, quality, suitability To extract information Research proposal The funding body and … Its referees To judge if your aims match the priorities of the funding body To judge quality and promise of the work Popular article Intelligent but un-informed public To be introduced to a new field To be entertained
3 CONCEPT--Making a Concept-Sheet When you can't write,it is because you don't know what you want to say.The first job is to structure your thinking.Settle down comfortably with a cup of coffee (or better,beer)and an A3 sheet of paper in Landscape orientation as in Figure 2.Devise a tentative title for the paper and write it at the top.Then-in as orderly way as you can,but disorder is OK too--jot down what seem like sensible section headings,each in its own box.Sketch in anything that occurs to you that belongs in a section-paragraph headings,figures,ideas.Think of things that might be relevant to the section-a reference,a graph you might need,an idea that requires further development.Put each in a bubble near the box to which it applies,with an arrow showing where it fits in.This is the time to de-focus,forget the detail and think both longitudinally and laterally.What should be in the paper?What else might be relevant?What else might you need to do the job-a copy of X,a figure of Y,the reference Z?Put it all down. You realise that you need an extra section-squeeze it in.You see that the order of sections is not good-add arrows indicating the new order. All this sounds like a child's game,but it is not.Its value lies in the freedom of thought it permits.Your first real act of composition (this one)is to allow your thinking to range over the entire paper,exploring ways in which the pieces might fit together,recording the resources you will need and capturing ideas.That way,no matter which part you start drafting,you have an idea of the whole.Don't yet think of style,neatness or anything else.Just add,at the appropriate place on the sheet,your thoughts.This can be the most satisfying step of writing a paper.Later steps can take time,be hard work,sometimes like squeezing water out of stone. But not this-it is the moment to be creative in whatever way your ideas may lead.You can add to the sheet at any time It becomes a road-map of where you are going. Figure 3 shows,unexpurgated,the concept sheet I made while thinking about this manual.Some bits were already planned;most developed in the hour I spent making the sheet; a few were added later,after some sections had been drafted.It is a mess,notes to oneself,but it guides the subsequent,more tedious,part of the journey.It is possible that this starting point may not work for you,but try it more than once before you abandon it.It is the best way I know to break writers-block and launch the real writing of the paper. How to write a paper J MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 5 MFA, 16/08/11 3 CONCEPT -- Making a Concept-Sheet When you can’t write, it is because you don’t know what you want to say. The first job is to structure your thinking. Settle down comfortably with a cup of coffee (or better, beer) and an A3 sheet of paper in Landscape orientation as in Figure 2. Devise a tentative title for the paper and write it at the top. Then – in as orderly way as you can, but disorder is OK too -- jot down what seem like sensible section headings, each in its own box. Sketch in anything that occurs to you that belongs in a section – paragraph headings, figures, ideas. Think of things that might be relevant to the section – a reference, a graph you might need, an idea that requires further development. Put each in a bubble near the box to which it applies, with an arrow showing where it fits in. This is the time to de-focus, forget the detail and think both longitudinally and laterally. What should be in the paper? What else might be relevant? What else might you need to do the job – a copy of X, a figure of Y, the reference Z? Put it all down. You realise that you need an extra section - squeeze it in. You see that the order of sections is not good – add arrows indicating the new order. All this sounds like a child’s game, but it is not. Its value lies in the freedom of thought it permits. Your first real act of composition (this one) is to allow your thinking to range over the entire paper, exploring ways in which the pieces might fit together, recording the resources you will need and capturing ideas. That way, no matter which part you start drafting, you have an idea of the whole. Don’t yet think of style, neatness or anything else. Just add, at the appropriate place on the sheet, your thoughts. This can be the most satisfying step of writing a paper. Later steps can take time, be hard work, sometimes like squeezing water out of stone. But not this – it is the moment to be creative in whatever way your ideas may lead. You can add to the sheet at any time It becomes a road-map of where you are going. Figure 3 shows, unexpurgated, the concept sheet I made while thinking about this manual. Some bits were already planned; most developed in the hour I spent making the sheet; a few were added later, after some sections had been drafted. It is a mess, notes to oneself, but it guides the subsequent, more tedious, part of the journey. It is possible that this starting point may not work for you, but try it more than once before you abandon it. It is the best way I know to break writers-block and launch the real writing of the paper
A3 or A4 sheet, landscape mode Good ideas for the text TITLE:- DISCUSS ION EE PN wTt乙 8yx,y RESULTS Boxes with main headings METHOD 9000 NMDGY! ANALYSS AMPER By ACKNDNLEDCMEMn NECDA RCFELINCES Things that are Links between still needed sections of text Figure 2 A model for a concept sheet.It helps to use colour to identify tasks that still need resolution.and good ideas for the text. How to write a paper 6 MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 6 MFA, 16/08/11 Figure 2 A model for a concept sheet. It helps to use colour to identify tasks that still need resolution, and good ideas for the text. A3 or A4 sheet, landscape mode Boxes with main headings Good ideas for the text Things that are still needed Links between sections of text
2's9 52J沙口 (Sa8wtN5 X NIHL -NON dwyx3 高e H4心320 I5n 893N ypy SI oHM MAHL Figure 3.The concept sheet I made when writing this text How to write a paper MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 7 MFA, 16/08/11 Figure 3. The concept sheet I made when writing this text
4 EMBODIMENT-The First Draft Now the hard work.Break the job down into stages.The usual stages in writing a paper are set out in the boxes below.Papers are not drafted sequentially;do it in any order you wish. Get the scientific facts and technical details down,the ideas formulated,the graphs and figures planned.If good ways of expressing the ideas occur to you now,use them;but do not deflect effort from the key job of assembling the pieces,in whatever form them come.Here they are 4.1 TITLE Meaningful and brief,in 14 pt bold Fatigue of Metal Foams is better than The Mechanical Response of Cymat and Alporas Metallic Foams to Uni-axial Cyclic Loading even though it is less specific. 4.2 ATTRIBUTION.The names of the authors,with all initials;the Institute or organization, with full address;the date. “AM.Harte and C.Chen, The Cambridge Centre for Micromechanics, Cambridge University Engineering Department, Cambridge CB2 IPZ,UK January1999.” 4.3 THE ABSTRACT.Try for one sentence each on motive,method,key results,conclusions. Don't exceed 3 sentences on any one. The reader of an Abstract has been lured by the title.He or she now want to know whether to read on.Tell them,in as few sentences as possible,what they will find.No waffle,no spurious details.Try not to exceed 100 words.Imagine that you are paying a 10p a word.See the Appendix for an example. 4.4 INTRODUCTION What is the problem and why is it interesting? Who are the main contributors? What did they do? What novel thing will you reveal? Outline the problem and why it was worth tackling.Review the literature,recording briefly the main contributors and summarising the status of the field when you started the research.Provide any specialised information that the reader might need if he is to understand How to write a paper 8 MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 8 MFA, 16/08/11 4 EMBODIMENT – The First Draft Now the hard work. Break the job down into stages. The usual stages in writing a paper are set out in the boxes below. Papers are not drafted sequentially; do it in any order you wish. Get the scientific facts and technical details down, the ideas formulated, the graphs and figures planned. If good ways of expressing the ideas occur to you now, use them; but do not deflect effort from the key job of assembling the pieces, in whatever form them come. Here they are. 4.1 TITLE Meaningful and brief, in 14 pt bold Fatigue of Metal Foams is better than The Mechanical Response of Cymat and Alporas Metallic Foams to Uni-axial Cyclic Loading even though it is less specific. 4.2 ATTRIBUTION • The names of the authors, with all initials; the Institute or organization, with full address; the date. “A.M.Harte and C.Chen, The Cambridge Centre for Micromechanics, Cambridge University Engineering Department, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK January 1999.” 4.3 THE ABSTRACT • Try for one sentence each on motive, method, key results, conclusions. Don’t exceed 3 sentences on any one. The reader of an Abstract has been lured by the title. He or she now want to know whether to read on. Tell them, in as few sentences as possible, what they will find. No waffle, no spurious details. Try not to exceed 100 words. Imagine that you are paying a 10p a word. See the Appendix for an example. 4.4 INTRODUCTION • What is the problem and why is it interesting? • Who are the main contributors? • What did they do? What novel thing will you reveal? Outline the problem and why it was worth tackling. Review the literature, recording briefly the main contributors and summarising the status of the field when you started the research. Provide any specialised information that the reader might need if he is to understand
what follows.State what you will do that has not been done before (new experimental approach?new data?new model?new interpretation?)Keep it as brief as you can whilst still doing all this. Start with a good first sentence-see Section 8 for examples. 4.5 METHOD Experimental paper:equipment,materials,method Modeling paper:assumptions,mathematical tools,method Computational paper:inputs,computational tools,method Explain what is especially different about your method. Give sufficient detail that the reader can reproduce what you did. Don't mix Method with Results or Discussion-they come next. This should be an easy section to write:just say what you did,succinctly.Use "we"but do so sparingly:too many "we's"sounds like a child's day out:"first we did this,then we did that.” Build up a reference list as you go.See Section 4.10 for the way to deal with references. It is one of the principles of science that a paper should contain sufficient detail to allow the work to be repeated by someone else.Provide this but no more.Keep the results for the next section. 4.6 RESULTS.Present the output of the experiments,model or computation. .Don't mix Results with Discussion.It belongs-all of it-in 4.7. This,too,should be an easy section to write.Report your results simply,without opinion or interpretation at this stage.Define all symbols and units.Present data in a form other people can use.Give emphasis in the text the most important aspects of the tables,graphs or figures. Give error-bars or confidence-limits for numerical or graphical data.Statistics should be meaningful:avoid confidence-eroding statements such as "33.3%of the samples failed:33.3% survived;the third sample was unfortunately misplaced." Aim for a concise,economical style. Poor:It is clearly shown in Figure 3 that the shear loading had caused the cell-walls to suffer ductile fracture or possibly brittle failure. Better:Shear loading fractures cell-walls (Figure 3). 4.7 DISCUSSION.Extract principles,relationships,generalizations. Present analysis,model or theory. Show relationship between the results and analysis,model or theory How to write a paper 9 MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 9 MFA, 16/08/11 what follows. State what you will do that has not been done before (new experimental approach? new data? new model? new interpretation?) Keep it as brief as you can whilst still doing all this. Start with a good first sentence – see Section 8 for examples. 4.5 METHOD • Experimental paper: equipment, materials, method Modeling paper: assumptions, mathematical tools, method Computational paper: inputs, computational tools, method • Explain what is especially different about your method. • Give sufficient detail that the reader can reproduce what you did. • Don’t mix Method with Results or Discussion – they come next. This should be an easy section to write: just say what you did, succinctly. Use “we” but do so sparingly: too many “we’s” sounds like a child’s day out: “first we did this, then we did that.” Build up a reference list as you go. See Section 4.10 for the way to deal with references. It is one of the principles of science that a paper should contain sufficient detail to allow the work to be repeated by someone else. Provide this but no more. Keep the results for the next section. 4.6 RESULTS • Present the output of the experiments, model or computation. • Don’t mix Results with Discussion. It belongs – all of it – in 4.7. This, too, should be an easy section to write. Report your results simply, without opinion or interpretation at this stage. Define all symbols and units. Present data in a form other people can use. Give emphasis in the text the most important aspects of the tables, graphs or figures. Give error-bars or confidence-limits for numerical or graphical data. Statistics should be meaningful; avoid confidence-eroding statements such as “33.3% of the samples failed: 33.3% survived; the third sample was unfortunately misplaced.” Aim for a concise, economical style. Poor: It is clearly shown in Figure 3 that the shear loading had caused the cell-walls to suffer ductile fracture or possibly brittle failure. Better: Shear loading fractures cell-walls (Figure 3). 4.7 DISCUSSION • Extract principles, relationships, generalizations. • Present analysis, model or theory. • Show relationship between the results and analysis, model or theory
Here you are seeking to extract principles,relationships,or generalisations from the results. Sometimes the results speak for themselves. The novel heat-treatment described in Section 2 gives steels which are 10%stronger and 20% tougher than those heat-treated in the normal way. could be all you need.Most of the research we do aims at why materials behave as they do,and this requires ideas about mechanisms,models and associated theory.The function of the Discussion is to describe the ideas,models and theories and lead the reader through a comparison of these with the experimental or computational data.Bring out the most significant conclusions first;develop subsidiary conclusions after that. Be clear and concise;a Discussion is not a license to waffle.See Appendix for examples of waffle and what to do about it. 4.8 CONCLUSION.Draw together the most important results and their consequences List any reservations or limitations. The reader scanning your paper will read the Abstract and the Conclusions,glance at the Figures and move on.Do not duplicate the Abstract as the Conclusions or vice versa.The Abstract is an overview of the entire paper.The Conclusions are a summing up of the advances in knowledge that have emerged from it.It is acceptable to present conclusions as a bullet- pointed list. 4.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.Thank people who have helped you with ideas. technical assistance,materials or finance. Keep it simple,give full names and affiliation,and don't get sentimental.A formula such as this works well: I wish to thank Prof.L.M.Brown of the Cavendish Laboratory,Cambridge,for suggesting this review,and to acknowledge my debt to the books listed below. or: The authors wish to thank Professor A.G.Evans of Harvard University for suggesting the approach developed in section 4.3:Mr A.Heaver for his technical assistence throughout the project and Mrs Jo Ladbrooke for proof-reading the manuscript.The research was supported by the EPSRC under grant number EJA S67,by the DARPA-ONR MURI program under contract number N00014-1-96-1028,and by a Research Fellowship from the National Research Council of Canada. How to write a paper 10 MFA,16/08/11
How to write a paper 10 MFA, 16/08/11 Here you are seeking to extract principles, relationships, or generalisations from the results. Sometimes the results speak for themselves. The novel heat-treatment described in Section 2 gives steels which are 10% stronger and 20% tougher than those heat-treated in the normal way. could be all you need. Most of the research we do aims at why materials behave as they do, and this requires ideas about mechanisms, models and associated theory. The function of the Discussion is to describe the ideas, models and theories and lead the reader through a comparison of these with the experimental or computational data. Bring out the most significant conclusions first; develop subsidiary conclusions after that. Be clear and concise; a Discussion is not a license to waffle. See Appendix for examples of waffle and what to do about it. 4.8 CONCLUSION • Draw together the most important results and their consequences. • List any reservations or limitations. The reader scanning your paper will read the Abstract and the Conclusions, glance at the Figures and move on. Do not duplicate the Abstract as the Conclusions or vice versa. The Abstract is an overview of the entire paper. The Conclusions are a summing up of the advances in knowledge that have emerged from it. It is acceptable to present conclusions as a bulletpointed list. 4.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • Thank people who have helped you with ideas, technical assistance, materials or finance. Keep it simple, give full names and affiliation, and don’t get sentimental. A formula such as this works well: I wish to thank Prof. L.M. Brown of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, for suggesting this review, and to acknowledge my debt to the books listed below. or: The authors wish to thank Professor A. G. Evans of Harvard University for suggesting the approach developed in section 4.3; Mr A. Heaver for his technical assistence throughout the project and Mrs Jo Ladbrooke for proof-reading the manuscript. The research was supported by the EPSRC under grant number EJA S67, by the DARPA-ONR MURI program under contract number N00014-1-96-1028, and by a Research Fellowship from the National Research Council of Canada
