CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATION IN THE INFORMATION AGE: AN OVERVIEW Graeme Newman Introduction The post modern age of information technology promises to transform both the content, accessibility and utilisation of criminal justice information. In this rapidly changing age, the structure of traditional authority is being undermined and replaced by an alternative method of societal control. The most significant instigator and reflector of this change is the Internet The Internet provides heretofore unregulated and unlimited exchange of information among individuals and organisations via two levels of activity First, anonymous exchange of information via electronic bulletin boards and discussion lists, using E mail which has now come into its own. In criminal justice, the United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network-L (UNCJIN-L), an electronic bulletin board with over 700 members world wide, established by the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division, has pioneered this mode of information exchange Second, the Internet provides the dissemination and storage of large amounts of information in the form of databases or text, graphics, audio, and video now mainly on what is called the World Wide Web. The United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) pioneered the development of criminal justice databases on the Internet via the World wide Web in 1991. Since that time many criminal justice databases and so-called home pages have appeared in many different physical places throughout the world, linked electronically via the World Wide Web. a home page may contain simply links to other sites of related interest, links to large databases contained physically at that site, or both. UNCJIN on the World Wide Web falls into the latter category. A selection of criminal justice web sites is provided in the appendix. The Internet is also the reflection of deeper changes in the structure of the information society. Thus, this paper also reviews the ways in which criminal justice agencies must respond to these changes especially in respect to the changing structure of authority and control in the information society. With the rapidity of change, there is the danger that criminal justice agencies may become the victims of the information technology revolution, yet as major producers and users of criminal justice information they have the possibility to become leaders in the way in which criminal justice information is used and produced. The issues of utilisation, information, production, and the sharing of criminal justice information are therefore of crucial importance This section is organised in a rough historical sequence. It examines the broad historical and cultural origins of the revolution in information technology, culminating in an analysis of the changes both brought on and reflected by the Internet. It examines the deeper changes in authority and control in the post modern information society, linking them to the current needs of criminal justice agencies in terms of the generation, utilisation and haring of criminal justice information 2. The Information Age In the twentieth century societies in most parts of the world have undergone immense changes regardless of their level of development. The most drastic changes have occurred in the Western industrialised countries where the base of economic activity has shifted from large-scale industrial production to one of a service economy The service economy deals almost entirely in the processing, utilisation, and dissemination of information Formally called the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch
Formally called the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch. 1 CRIMINAL JUSTICE INFORMATION IN THE INFORMATION AGE: AN OVERVIEW Graeme Newman 1. Introduction The post modern age of information technology promises to transform both the content, accessibility and utilisation of criminal justice information. In this rapidly changing age, the structure of traditional authority is being undermined and replaced by an alternative method of societal control. The most significant instigator and reflector of this change is the Internet. The Internet provides heretofore unregulated and unlimited exchange of information among individuals and organisations via two levels of activity: First, anonymous exchange of information via electronic bulletin boards and discussion lists, using Email which has now come into its own. In criminal justice, the United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network-L (UNCJIN-L), an electronic bulletin board with over 700 members world wide, established by the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division , has pioneered this mode of information exchange. 1 Second, the Internet provides the dissemination and storage of large amounts of information in the form of databases or text, graphics, audio, and video now mainly on what is called the World Wide Web. The United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) pioneered the development of criminal justice databases on the Internet via the World Wide Web in 1991. Since that time many criminal justice databases and so-called home pages have appeared in many different physical places throughout the world, linked electronically via the World Wide Web. A home page may contain simply links to other sites of related interest, links to large databases contained physically at that site, or both. UNCJIN on the World Wide Web falls into the latter category. A selection of criminal justice web sites is provided in the appendix. The Internet is also the reflection of deeper changes in the structure of the information society. Thus, this paper also reviews the ways in which criminal justice agencies must respond to these changes especially in respect to the changing structure of authority and control in the information society. With the rapidity of change, there is the danger that criminal justice agencies may become the victims of the information technology revolution, yet as major producers and users of criminal justice information they have the possibility to become leaders in the way in which criminal justice information is used and produced. The issues of utilisation, information, production, and the sharing of criminal justice information are therefore of crucial importance. This section is organised in a rough historical sequence. It examines the broad historical and cultural origins of the revolution in information technology, culminating in an analysis of the changes both brought on and reflected by the Internet. It examines the deeper changes in authority and control in the post modern information society, linking them to the current needs of criminal justice agencies in terms of the generation, utilisation and sharing of criminal justice information. 2. The Information Age In the twentieth century societies in most parts of the world have undergone immense changes regardless of their level of development. The most drastic changes have occurred in the Western industrialised countries where the base of economic activity has shifted from large-scale industrial production to one of a service economy. The service economy deals almost entirely in the processing, utilisation, and dissemination of information
Industrialised countries have long exported their industrial strength and applied it to other, less developed countries,often being accused of exploitation. Particularly, industrialized nations have assisted in the creation of dependent economies in developing regions of the world. While this dependency throughout the world continues in many ways, it was at its height during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century when colonialism dominated the world scene. Throughout the twentieth century many countries have managed to throw off the mantle of colonialism and assert their political independence. However, economic independence has beer very hard to obtain for many former colonial countries. The industrial might of the west seems unstoppable. Many of the positive aspects of the industrial west(e.g, improved health care, communications, and transportation)are attractive to many developing countries There exist a few success stories in which industrial or commercial development has transformed a country from one of wide-scale poverty in the mid twentieth century, to a shining example of capitalism, in which the standard of living for all citizens has risen dramatically(e.g. Hong Kong), with a quality of life easily matching hat of the West. a number of Asian countries on the Pacific Rim are following this line of progress agenda l. The problem that lingers on, however, is that the world appears dominated by a powerful Western ung people, no matter where in the world, prefer to dress in blue jeans, or western style clothes. Older people prefer to drive automobiles, adolescents prefer western music, and many--young and old--prefer the plethora of movies and television programs imported from the west. People all over the world are thus subject to a barrage of words, images and sounds that have been produced by Western culture. What makes it so powerful and Before we begin to understand the role of criminal justice information in the information age, we should first understand the of the information age, its implications for culture and life For it is the larger issues of life and culture that will shape the way in which criminal justice develops in the information age, and constrain the ways in which criminal justice information may be used and spread. Many claim that we are in the midst of an information revolution and this may be so. However, if it is a revolution it began a few thousand years ago 3. Origins of the Information Society Marshall MeCLuhan argues that the information society has developed out of a particular kind of culture which he calls alphabetic culture. McCluhan identifies three types of cultures as the forerunners of the major modern cultures throughout the world: auditory cultures, alphabetic cultures, and ideographic cultures Auditory were the original cultures; the knowledge source was the elders such as parents, neighbours, or village seniors.The transmission of knowledge was auditory (i.e, by word of mouth--folklore, stories, and songs. This was, however, an inefficient and unreliable way of storing and transmitting information. Only certain individuals had the capacity to remember the knowledge of a particular culture, and on re-telling, there was a good chance that the folklore would be changed or even forgotten. Ideographic cultures were(and are) those cultures in which knowledge was transmitted through a particular form of writing called ideographs. Ideographs are written symbols that have specific reference particular historical events and objects. Without knowledge of these events or objects, it is not possible to fully understand this type of written language. While this type of language allowed for the storing of information, it was highly specialised and required highly-educated individuals to truly understand and interpret it. Thus, it did not lend itself to wide-spread dissemination of knowledge. Knowledge, instead was the harbinger of elite educated individuals phabetic cultures probably arose out of the early hieroglyphics of the Egyptians although there is some controversy as to the actual origins of the alphabet as it appears in many languages today. However, in these cultures, the significant element is their efficiency. Letters can be used in virtually any combination to represent an object, thing or idea. They do not, as in ideographs and the earlier hieroglyphics, have to bear any resemblance at all to the object. A rough idea of the distance between object or idea and its representation as a word is provided McCLuhan, M. (1962)The Gutenberg Galary: The Making of Typographic Man.. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
- 2 - McCLuhan, M. (1962) The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 2 Industrialised countries have long exported their industrial strength and applied it to other, less developed countries, often being accused of exploitation. Particularly, industrialized nations have assisted in the creation of dependent economies in developing regions of the world. While this dependency throughout the world continues in many ways, it was at its height during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century when colonialism dominated the world scene. Throughout the twentieth century many countries have managed to throw off the mantle of colonialism and assert their political independence. However, economic independence has been very hard to obtain for many former colonial countries. The industrial might of the west seems unstoppable. Many of the positive aspects of the industrial west (e.g., improved health care, communications, and transportation) are attractive to many developing countries.. There exist a few success stories in which industrial or commercial development has transformed a country from one of wide-scale poverty in the mid twentieth century, to a shining example of capitalism, in which the standard of living for all citizens has risen dramatically (e.g. Hong Kong), with a quality of life easily matching that of the West. A number of Asian countries on the Pacific Rim are following this line of progress. The problem that lingers on, however, is that the world appears dominated by a powerful Western agenda. Young people, no matter where in the world, prefer to dress in blue jeans, or western style clothes. Older people prefer to drive automobiles, adolescents prefer western music, and many--young and old--prefer the plethora of movies and television programs imported from the west. People all over the world are thus subject to a barrage of words, images and sounds that have been produced by Western culture. What makes it so powerful and popular? Before we begin to understand the role of criminal justice information in the information age, we should first understand the origins of the information age, its implications for culture and life. For it is the larger issues of life and culture that will shape the way in which criminal justice develops in the information age, and constrain the ways in which criminal justice information may be used and spread. Many claim that we are in the midst of an information revolution and this may be so. However, if it is a revolution it began a few thousand years ago. 3. Origins of the Information Society Marshall McCLuhan argues that the information society has developed out of a particular kind of culture which he calls alphabetic culture. McCluhan identifies three types of cultures as the forerunners of the 2 major modern cultures throughout the world: auditory cultures, alphabetic cultures, and ideographic cultures. Auditory were the original cultures; the knowledge source was the elders such as parents, neighbours, or village seniors. The transmission of knowledge was auditory (i.e., by word of mouth--folklore, stories, and songs). This was, however, an inefficient and unreliable way of storing and transmitting information. Only certain individuals had the capacity to remember the knowledge of a particular culture, and on re-telling, there was a good chance that the folklore would be changed, or even forgotten. Ideographic cultures were (and are) those cultures in which knowledge was transmitted through a particular form of writing called ideographs. Ideographs are written symbols that have specific reference to particular historical events and objects. Without knowledge of these events or objects, it is not possible to fully understand this type of written language. While this type of language allowed for the storing of information, it was highly specialised and required highly-educated individuals to truly understand and interpret it. Thus, it did not lend itself to wide-spread dissemination of knowledge. Knowledge, instead was the harbinger of elite educated individuals. Alphabetic cultures probably arose out of the early hieroglyphics of the Egyptians although there is some controversy as to the actual origins of the alphabet as it appears in many languages today. However, in these cultures, the significant element is their efficiency. Letters can be used in virtually any combination to represent an object, thing or idea. They do not, as in ideographs and the earlier hieroglyphics, have to bear any resemblance at all to the object. A rough idea of the distance between object or idea and its representation as a word is provided
in the figure below. The stylised representation of a bird similar to that used in hieroglyphics is still recognisable as representing a bird, but the word"bird "bears no resemblance to a bird at all. That is, the concept is completely divorced from the object. Indeed, some would say that form was separated from content. This is the crucial beginning of the information revolution The alphabet made knowledge transportable in a way like never before, making it possible to store knowledge in an efficient, error-free, shorthand form. Complex images did not have to be reproduced. Just the simple forms of letters combined in certain ways were sufficient. It is this ease of storing knowledge and its communication that are key to the information society Figure 1: Form Separated from Content This bird is not a bird This crucial beginning, the development of alphabetic cultures, gave rise to the now well known history of information technology(see Table 1). As we can see, technology, particularly after the discovery of electricity has advanced greatly in this century. Technological development in the past 50 years has been especially rapid Table 1: Time Line of Information Technology Development Generations ago 200 Writing invented in the Near east; large amounts of information can be stored without error and transmitted to succeeding generations Alphabet invented; the first“ technology
- 3 - in the figure below. The stylised representation of a bird similar to that used in hieroglyphics is still recognisable as representing a bird, but the word “bird” bears no resemblance to a bird at all. That is, the concept is completely divorced from the object. Indeed, some would say that form was separated from content. This is the crucial beginning of the information revolution. The alphabet made knowledge transportable in a way like never before, making it possible to store knowledge in an efficient, error-free, shorthand form. Complex images did not have to be reproduced. Just the simple forms of letters combined in certain ways were sufficient. It is this ease of storing knowledge and its communication that are key to the information society. Figure 1: Form Separated from Content This crucial beginning, the development of alphabetic cultures, gave rise to the now well known history of information technology (see Table 1). As we can see, technology, particularly after the discovery of electricity, has advanced greatly in this century. Technological development in the past 50 years has been especially rapid. Table 1: Time Line of Information Technology Development Generations ago Event 200 Writing invented in the Near East; large amounts of information can be stored without error and transmitted to succeeding generations 100 Alphabet invented; the first “technology
4 Gutenberg printing press with movable type shortens the labour of copyists; standardised printing Luther and Dante free writing from Latin, thereby further democratising the nted word The pace quickens. Morse demonstrates the electric telegraph. " News "can be communicated in an instantly Telegraph cable laid across the Atlantic, thus linking Europe and America, reducing communication time by a factor of a million 3 Marconi invents the wireless(1895). Edison invents the phonograph Television pictures transmitted First IBM computer in 1953, which in 1977 was available as a hand held calculator Personal computer in 1982, optical disks, fiber optics, satellite transmission, cell phones, multimedia current The Internet: communication and information come together current World wide web: knowledge universalised through hypertext Although the speed of change in this century gives the impression of a revolution, the changes, in fact, represent a logical evolution of alphabetic culture As we see above, the primary separation of people from knowledge occurred as a result of the cultural elite having access to the secrets of written language. In the middle ages in Europe, this separation was visible in the structure of society-between peasants and lords, between the rabble and the educated (consisting largely of the priesthood whose education was entirely in Latin or Greek). In the time of Martin Luther these things began to
- 4 - 18 Gutenberg printing press with movable type shortens the labour of copyists; standardised printing 14 Luther and Dante free writing from Latin, thereby further democratising the printed word 5 The pace quickens. Morse demonstrates the electric telegraph. “News” can be communicated in an instantly 4 Telegraph cable laid across the Atlantic, thus linking Europe and America, reducing communication time by a factor of a million 3 Marconi invents the wireless (1895). Edison invents the phonograph 1 Television pictures transmitted. First IBM computer in 1953, which in 1977 was available as a hand held calculator current Personal computer in 1982, optical disks, fiber optics, satellite transmission, cell phones, multimedia current The Internet: communication and information come together current World Wide Web: knowledge universalised through hypertext Although the speed of change in this century gives the impression of a revolution, the changes, in fact, represent a logical evolution of alphabetic culture. As we see above, the primary separation of people from knowledge occurred as a result of the cultural elite having access to the secrets of written language. In the middle ages in Europe, this separation was visible in the structure of society--between peasants and lords, between the rabble and the educated (consisting largely of the priesthood whose education was entirely in Latin or Greek). In the time of Martin Luther these things began to
Luther's translation of The Bible in the early sixteenth century provides one example(albeit non- technical)of the construction of new patterns of knowledge and the rapid dissemination of information. Suddenly The Bible became German. Furthermore, Luther expressed great surprise at the speed with which his writings were translated from Latin using the printing press and distributed throughout Europe. The same occurred in many spheres of knowledge, particularly science and alchemy. Historians have observed how the power of the d word was expanded beyond the realm of the elite to an increasing proportion of society who could read the The late Middle Ages is known as a time of the passing of traditional society. Events such as Luthers questioning of The Church, and the explosion of new ideas that arose during and after that time led to breakdown of the traditional relationship between lord and serf, king and country. The questioning of ideas, loyalties, beliefs, and authority continued relentlessly, spurring social rebellion and the establishment of a new order. Concurrent with this dissention, or perhaps pushing it along, was the publication of masses of tracts, pamphlets, and books Sometimes described by scholars as a period of the democratisation of knowledge, the late Middle Ages was a time when knowledge became accessible to al 4. The democratisation of knowledge With democratisation, individuals act freely, elect their representatives, and have open access to knowledge. There are at least six ways in which knowledge has been democratised since the period of the reformation 4.1 Breath of Dissemination Once Luther translated The Bible into german, and scholars such as bacon and dante wrote for the popular tongue, knowledge became accessible by a much broader range of people. Information was no longer confined to those who could read Latin 4.2 Speed of Dissemination The Gutenberg printing press made it easier to print multiple copies of articles and broadsides. With improvements in transportation, pamphlets could then be distributed more quickly. With technologicl innovations of the last two centuries, the speed of dissemination of knowledge has become virtually instantaneous, providing less opportunity for adulteration of information by social elites. Indeed, since the very first use of the telegraph in 1844, the importance of immediacy of news(often regardless of content) has reigned supreme in the media What better example of the undercutting of authoritative knowledge(and hence its democratisation) than the on- ' Postman, N(1992) Technopoly The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage Postman, N.(1984)Amucing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of shonw Business. London: Penguin
- 5 - Postman, N. (1992) Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage. 3 Postman, N. (1984) Amuzing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business. London: Penguin. 4 change, however. Luther’s translation of The Bible in the early sixteenth century provides one example (albeit nontechnical) of the construction of new patterns of knowledge and the rapid dissemination of information. Suddenly, The Bible became German. Furthermore, Luther expressed great surprise at the speed with which his writings were translated from Latin using the printing press and distributed throughout Europe. The same occurred in many spheres of knowledge, particularly science and alchemy . Historians have observed how the power of the 3 printed word was expanded beyond the realm of the elite to an increasing proportion of society who could read the common language. The late Middle Ages is known as a time of the passing of traditional society. Events such as Luther’s questioning of The Church, and the explosion of new ideas that arose during and after that time led to breakdown of the traditional relationship between lord and serf, king and country. The questioning of ideas, loyalties, beliefs, and authority continued relentlessly, spurring social rebellion and the establishment of a new order. Concurrent with this dissention, or perhaps pushing it along, was the publication of masses of tracts, pamphlets, and books. Sometimes described by scholars as a period of the democratisation of knowledge, the late Middle Ages was a time when knowledge became accessible to all. 4. The Democratisation of Knowledge With democratisation, individuals act freely, elect their representatives, and have open access to knowledge. There are at least six ways in which knowledge has been democratised since the period of the reformation: 4.1 Breath of Dissemination Once Luther translated The Bible into German, and scholars such as Bacon and Dante wrote for the popular tongue, knowledge became accessible by a much broader range of people. Information was no longer confined to those who could read Latin. 4.2 Speed of Dissemination The Gutenberg printing press made it easier to print multiple copies of articles and broadsides. With improvements in transportation, pamphlets could then be distributed more quickly. With technologicl innovations of the last two centuries, the speed of dissemination of knowledge has become virtually instantaneous, providing less opportunity for adulteration of information by social elites. Indeed, since the very first use of the telegraph in 1844, the importance of immediacy of news (often regardless of content) has reigned supreme in the media . 4 What better example of the undercutting of authoritative knowledge (and hence its democratisation) than the on-
the-spot reporting of the Gulf war: Even before diplomats, politicians, and military personnel could filter it, the world gained access to news through the media 4.3 Disembodiment of Ideas noted earlier, knowledge in auditory cultures was embodied in the communal elder, who established the authority of the knowledge itself. However, with the printed book, alphabetic culture transferred the authority of knowledge to the physical object-ideas were retained in books and could be widely distributed. While there has always been a tendency for the masses to embody ideas in a person of great stature(e.g. Mao Tse Tungs Little red Book), the information society has emphasized ideology rather than glorify particular individuals. This change is particularly noticeable in the last decade 4.4 Minority Views are equalised By separating knowledge from individuals, it has become possible for minority views to gain equal footing in the field of knowledge. For example, given the cultural (and Christian) climate at the time, Luthers views were of in the minority but gained visibility as he reached a broader audience. Thus, the established structure underlying knowledge was attacked and undermined 4.5 Knowledge is Transformed into Information In response to the surge in written word, an industry arose whose main function it was to reproduce and distribure books, pamphlets, and other written materials. These industries were only secondarily concerned with the content of the material they published, however(unless it affected distribution). Neil Postman makes a forceful argument that in the late twentieth century society has reached the end of this dissemination in that information is left with no structure to it. In effect, knowledge has lost authority 5. The relationship between Knowledge and order On the side of order, it must be seen that the advent of the printing press with movable type brought an orderliness and standardisation to the publishing industry. Errors made when copying text and graphics by hand were eliminated. In 1516, the first book paginated with Arabic numerals was introduced--surely an indication of the order of the printed form. A chronological structure of books(starting at the beginning, and continuing in an orderly fashion, to the end) was established. Thus, the Middle Ages introduced an imposition of order and aesthetic standard for printed work. In the modern printed book these standards and order remain apparent: most text is justified and proportional; running headers occur on each page; chapters are clearly marked and pages numbered. The layout of the title page is standardised, as is the copyright page. An index is al ways found in the back(in English language texts, that is). In fact, entire books have been dedicated to the instruction of rules of style, grammar, and punctuation(e.g, The Chicago Manual of Style). These are attempts to impose order on all printed documents
- 6 - the-spot reporting of the Gulf war: Even before diplomats, politicians, and military personnel could filter it, the world gained access to news through the media. 4.3 Disembodiment of Ideas As noted earlier, knowledge in auditory cultures was embodied in the communal elder, who established the authority of the knowledge itself. However, with the printed book, alphabetic culture transferred the authority of knowledge to the physical object--ideas were retained in books and could be widely distributed. While there has always been a tendency for the masses to embody ideas in a person of great stature (e.g. Mao Tse Tung’s Little Red Book), the information society has emphasized ideology rather than glorify particular individuals. This change is particularly noticeable in the last decade. 4.4 Minority Views are Equalised By separating knowledge from individuals, it has become possible for minority views to gain equal footing in the field of knowledge. For example, given the cultural (and Christian) climate at the time, Luther’s views were of in the minority but gained visibility as he reached a broader audience. Thus, the established structure underlying knowledge was attacked and undermined. 4.5 Knowledge is Transformed into Information In response to the surge in written word, an industry arose whose main function it was to reproduce and distribure books, pamphlets, and other written materials. These industries were only secondarily concerned with the content of the material they published, however (unless it affected distribution). Neil Postman makes a forceful argument that in the late twentieth century society has reached the end of this dissemination in that information is left with no structure to it. In effect, knowledge has lost authority. 5. The Relationship Between Knowledge and Order On the side of order, it must be seen that the advent of the printing press with movable type brought an orderliness and standardisation to the publishing industry. Errors made when copying text and graphics by hand were eliminated. In 1516, the first book paginated with Arabic numerals was introduced--surely an indication of the order of the printed form. A chronological structure of books (starting at the beginning, and continuing in an orderly fashion, to the end) was established. Thus, the Middle Ages introduced an imposition of order and an aesthetic standard for printed work. In the modern printed book these standards and order remain apparent: most text is justified and proportional; running headers occur on each page; chapters are clearly marked and pages numbered. The layout of the title page is standardised, as is the copyright page. An index is always found in the back (in English language texts, that is). In fact, entire books have been dedicated to the instruction of rules of style, grammar, and punctuation (e.g., The Chicago Manual of Style). These are attempts to impose order on all printed documents
Unfortunately, this order eventually affected the quality and substance of knowledge itself in that it required text to conform to a linear model. The rigidity of this model discouraged later thinking and made the dissemination of information difficult 6. The transformation of Knowledge into Information We can see from the time line of change that another important event undermining the traditional structure of knowledge was the rapid communication of information that became possible after the invention of the telegraph, telephone, television and radio, and finally computers. The immediacy of information became of prime importance. The telegraph was initially used, for example, to convey results of a battle to a newspaper which then printed the story. Swift immediate knowledge of an event--news--became a premium, and has in many respects taken over the knowledge base of Western society. However, some believe that while such news may be information, it is not knowledge in the traditional sense; it fails to add to a body of knowledge in which there is the repository of wisdom. Television provides an example: sound bytes and news clips are used one day, and are gone the next. News has a very brief life. News organisations report on the most recent, striking events, while stories of the distant past are relegated to obscure television channels The transformation of communications into instantaneous news-making technology has changed the way society values knowledge. The immediate and the present have taken priority over history, undermining traditional order. Yet this change in the way information is viewed is but a logical extension of the alphabetic culture which began long ago: it is now the accumulated abstract and disembodied symbols of life. The traditional book is the last bastion of ordered knowledge. Moreover, the order of society has been transferred into the ordered inearity of the book Change has separated the order that resided in the authority of revered individuals on to the physical objects of books. Once upon a time order was transmitted in traditional(auditory)societies from elders to the younger, and authority was recognised in age and experience. In contrast, the late twentieth century is a new age. Because of the primacy of immediacy over history, age and experience have come to mean much less. In fact, inexperience(i.e youth) has come to be revered in western society In sum, knowledge has become a commodity, and in that sense is no longer knowledge, but information- -a product like any other product. Karl Marx wrote that the process of goods exchange erodes the intrinsic value of the commodity or product, such that it becomes only worth what the marketplace is willing to pay. Thus, the essential transformation of knowledge into information"gutts"knowledge of its substance giving it value only in terms of its exterior qualities in the market place, subject to the laws of supply and demand What Marx could not have foreseen is that information used in the market place can also affect its demand in profound ways Advertising, for example, is a way of using information as a means to enhance demand for products, many of which depend on information for their value. Thus, while information has little intrinsic value, it has tremendous value as a motivating force in the market place. As the twentieth century draws to a close, it appears that information has gained the upper hand, and has subsequently created a massive demand, despite the present glut Postman, N(1992)Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage Bouloukos, A. C, D. C. Benamati, G. R. Newman(1995)"Teaching Information Literacy "in Journal of Criminal Justice Education6(2)213-233
- 7 - Postman, N. (1992) Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage. 5 Bouloukos, A. C., D. C. Benamati, G. R. Newman (1995) “Teaching Information Literacy” in Journal of Criminal Justice 6 Education 6(2) 213-233. Unfortunately, this order eventually affected the quality and substance of knowledge itself in that it required text to conform to a linear model. The rigidity of this model discouraged later thinking and made the dissemination of information difficult. 6. The Transformation of Knowledge into Information We can see from the time line of change that another important event undermining the traditional structure of knowledge was the rapid communication of information that became possible after the invention of the telegraph, telephone, television and radio, and finally computers. The immediacy of information became of prime importance. The telegraph was initially used, for example, to convey results of a battle to a newspaper which then printed the story. Swift immediate knowledge of an event--news--became a premium, and has in many respects taken over the knowledge base of Western society. However, some believe that while such news may be information, it is not knowledge in the traditional sense; it fails to add to a body of knowledge in which there is the repository of wisdom. Television provides an example: sound bytes and news clips are used one day, and are gone the next. News has a very brief life. News organisations report on the most recent, striking events, while stories of the distant past are relegated to obscure television channels. The transformation of communications into instantaneous news-making technology has changed the way society values knowledge. The immediate and the present have taken priority over history, undermining traditional order. Yet this change in the way information is viewed is but a logical extension of the alphabetic culture which began long ago: it is now the accumulated abstract and disembodied symbols of life. The traditional book is the last bastion of ordered knowledge. Moreover, the order of society has been transferred into the ordered linearity of the book. Change has separated the order that resided in the authority of revered individuals on to the physical objects of books. Once upon a time order was transmitted in traditional (auditory) societies from elders to the younger, and authority was recognised in age and experience. In contrast, the late twentieth century is a new age. Because of the primacy of immediacy over history, age and experience have come to mean much less. In fact, inexperience (i.e. youth) has come to be revered in western society. In sum, knowledge has become a commodity, and in that sense is no longer knowledge, but information- -a product like any other product . Karl Marx wrote that the process of goods exchange erodes the intrinsic value 5 of the commodity or product, such that it becomes only worth what the marketplace is willing to pay. Thus, the essential transformation of knowledge into information “gutts” knowledge of its substance giving it value only 6 in terms of its exterior qualities in the market place, subject to the laws of supply and demand. What Marx could not have foreseen is that information used in the market place can also affect its demand in profound ways. Advertising, for example, is a way of using information as a means to enhance demand for products, many of which depend on information for their value. Thus, while information has little intrinsic value, it has tremendous value as a motivating force in the market place. As the twentieth century draws to a close, it appears that information has gained the upper hand, and has subsequently created a massive demand, despite the present glut
of information, as Postman points out. It is out of this excess that mass culture is formed Yet in spite of the undermining events of recent history, society has remained relatively ordered. Chaos has not broken out, though we often think a breakout is imminent where does order come from in the modern alphabetic culture? The answer is that modern societies have transformed order into control 7. Transformation of order into control Order emanates from the very media that have been central to the revolutionary change in information technology: the mass media. Let us reconsider the essential elements of auditory cultures, knowledge communicated interpersonally, through songs, rituals, and stories. There is a strong emotional element to this communication. The mass media, however, have circumvented the ordering role of elder statesmen, or other institutions for the communication of knowledge, and gone straight to the masses. Radio, television, and newspapers undermine the traditional veneration of age by placing priority on the immediacy and novelty of information, as we have seen above. More important, the mass media blur the distinction between information ( daily activities such as records, statistics and events)and knowledge( the ordered, historical meaning of life) Thus, because authority no longer resides in knowledge, it is easy prey to the powers of modern mass communications. And modern mass communications are able to exploit and convey their message using emotionally-charged visual and auditory media. Their method of communication is similar to that of auditory cultures, but far more powerful. Yet mass media only superficially communicate knowledge, as they have unwittingly eroded the basis of knowledge itself. That is, as McCluhan and Postman have argued, the medium itself changes the nature and content of the message. Mass media exert raw power over the masses. They hold the pwer to create needs and desires where they did not exist(as through advertising) The mass media market pre-packaged information to the masses who remain passive consumers of information. We should note that this is ranw power exerted over the masses, as distinct from the authority exerted in the middle ages which emanated from the authority of religion(e.g. The Bible or The Koran) In a democracy the free media therefore competes with established authority structures such as the bureaucracies of government for control, and exerts a powerful check on the control exerted by government. This is why in a less than democratic society, where the government regulates the media, control of the masses may approach the absolute. Thus, while the changes in media(outlined in Table 1)are important in understanding the revolution in information technology today, they tell only part of the story. Changes that have come about society in response to the undermining of traditional authority explain the rest. These institutions are the bureaucracies of society, of which criminal justice is one 8. Bureaucracies, Information and Control As many sociologists have observed, bureaucracies arose to cope with the disintegration of traditional society, and in response to the demands of the industrial revolution. Bureaucracies provided a way of orgar large numbers of people to perform together in accomplishing complex tasks(in the factory, for example)
- 8 - of information, as Postman points out. It is out of this excess that mass culture is formed. Yet in spite of the undermining events of recent history, society has remained relatively ordered. Chaos has not broken out, though we often think a breakout is imminent. Where does order come from in the modern alphabetic culture? The answer is that modern societies have transformed order into control. 7. Transformation of Order into Control Order emanates from the very media that have been central to the revolutionary change in information technology: the mass media. Let us reconsider the essential elements of auditory cultures; knowledge is communicated interpersonally, through songs, rituals, and stories. There is a strong emotional element to this communication. The mass media, however, have circumvented the ordering role of elder statesmen, or other institutions for the communication of knowledge, and gone straight to the masses. Radio, television, and newspapers undermine the traditional veneration of age by placing priority on the immediacy and novelty of information, as we have seen above. More important, the mass media blur the distinction between information (daily activities such as records, statistics and events) and knowledge (the ordered, historical meaning of life). Thus, because authority no longer resides in knowledge, it is easy prey to the powers of modern mass communications. And modern mass communications are able to exploit and convey their message using emotionally-charged visual and auditory media. Their method of communication is similar to that of auditory cultures, but far more powerful. Yet mass media only superficially communicate knowledge,as they have unwittingly eroded the basis of knowledge itself. That is, as McCluhan and Postman have argued, the medium itself changes the nature and content of the message. Mass media exert raw power over the masses. They hold the pwer to create needs and desires where they did not exist (as through advertising). The mass media market pre-packaged information to the masses who remain passive consumers of information. We should note that this is raw power exerted over the masses, as distinct from the authority exerted in the middle ages which emanated from the authority of religion (e.g. The Bible or The Koran). In a democracy the free media therefore competes with established authority structures such as the bureaucracies of government for control, and exerts a powerful check on the control exerted by government. This is why in a less than democratic society, where the government regulates the media, control of the masses may approach the absolute. Thus, while the changes in media (outlined in Table 1) are important in understanding the revolution in information technology today, they tell only part of the story. Changes that have come about in society in response to the undermining of traditional authority explain the rest. These institutions are the bureaucracies of society, of which criminal justice is one. 8. Bureaucracies, Information and Control As many sociologists have observed, bureaucracies arose to cope with the disintegration of traditional society, and in response to the demands of the industrial revolution. Bureaucracies provided a way of organising large numbers of people to perform together in accomplishing complex tasks (in the factory, for example)
However, in the twentieth century, these bureaucracies have developed special attributes. No longer are they merel concerned with the orderly transmission and storage of information within their own organisations, but because of the shift from an industrial to a service economy in the post modern society, bureaucracies have become large information gatherers. In fact, they have invented the special post modern form of information: the database Bureaucracies have now become the mainstay of modern government, with databases displacing knowledge and even turning knowledge itself into a database Private sector bureaucracies, such as corporations, also arose rapidly in the service economies, especially in the competition to capitalise on multi-national economic opportunities. The forerunners of these were unique part-government, part-private companies that carried out the main actions of colonisation of many parts of the world. The Dutch East India Company, for example, scoured the world in search of resources to exploit. Such companies managed their complex international affairs of trade through well-developed bureaucracies. Their modern counterparts util ise extensive databases in order to guide mass sales and marketing. While credit card databases improve sales efficiency and payments, the information they contain affords them a significant amount of social power. For example, credit histories of individuals may be bought and sold. Individual loan decisions and many other aspects of a person's life may be determined by a credit record Private sector demands for efficiency and a need to store vast amounts of data stimulated the development of new information technologies. Large filing cabinets and record books of nineteenth century bureaucracies have been replaced by mainframe computers in the twentieth century. Mass-marketing techniques demand immediate retrieval and processing of client information, and sifting of databases for specific information Public opinion polls for private, political and governmental use, which provide instant feedback on mass inquiries, have become a mainstay of modern information societies. Instant databases, which provide reports such as credit license registration, have become a necessity of modern information societies. Demand for easier access to information is met with increasingly powerful computers and less restricted computer access via cellular telephones and the internet One outcome of this information technology has been that confidentiality and security of databases have become of great concern. The private sector recognises their financial value and seeks to restrict access to them from competitors. At the same time corporations compete for access to and compilation of new databases, which are viewed as assets. Access and ownership of databases, particularly those profiling individual citizens, has become a serious legal and political question, since individual rights of privacy are at risk. Originally, database content could be easily protected because information was stored on the single mainframe computer, to which outside access was limited. With the growth of the Internet and rapid improvements in telecommunications, however, it has become increasingly difficult to limit and control access to most databases. As we shall see, the Internet is providing drastic and exciting changes in the distribution of authority, knowledge, and control 9. The Internet as a vehicle of radical change Mass communications and mass storage have come together to create what is popularly called the global Village, of which the Internet is argued to be the typical reflection. The analogy between the village and the Internet is persuasive. Like a traditional village, on the Internet all voices can be represented as though in a small
- 9 - However, in the twentieth century, these bureaucracies have developed special attributes. No longer are they merely concerned with the orderly transmission and storage of information within their own organisations, but because of the shift from an industrial to a service economy in the post modern society, bureaucracies have become large information gatherers. In fact, they have invented the special post modern form of information: the database. Bureaucracies have now become the mainstay of modern government, with databases displacing knowledge and even turning knowledge itself into a database. Private sector bureaucracies, such as corporations, also arose rapidly in the service economies, especially in the competition to capitalise on multi-national economic opportunities. The forerunners of these were unique, part-government, part-private companies that carried out the main actions of colonisation of many parts of the world. The Dutch East India Company, for example, scoured the world in search of resources to exploit. Such companies managed their complex international affairs of trade through well-developed bureaucracies. Their modern counterparts utilise extensive databases in order to guide mass sales and marketing. While credit card databases improve sales efficiency and payments, the information they contain affords them a significant amount of social power. For example, credit histories of individuals may be bought and sold. Individual loan decisions and many other aspects of a person’s life may be determined by a credit record. Private sector demands for efficiency and a need to store vast amounts of data stimulated the development of new information technologies. Large filing cabinets and record books of nineteenth century bureaucracies have been replaced by mainframe computers in the twentieth century. Mass-marketing techniques demand immediate retrieval and processing of client information, and sifting of databases for specific information. Public opinion polls for private, political and governmental use, which provide instant feedback on mass inquiries, have become a mainstay of modern information societies. Instant databases, which provide reports such as credit ratings or car license registration, have become a necessity of modern information societies. Demand for easier access to information is met with increasingly powerful computers and less restricted computer access via cellular telephones and the Internet. One outcome of this information technology has been that confidentiality and security of databases have become of great concern. The private sector recognises their financial value and seeks to restrict access to them from competitors. At the same time corporations compete for access to and compilation of new databases, which are viewed as assets. Access and ownership of databases, particularly those profiling individual citizens, has become a serious legal and political question, since individual rights of privacy are at risk. Originally, database content could be easily protected because information was stored on the single mainframe computer, to which outside access was limited. With the growth of the Internet and rapid improvements in telecommunications, however, it has become increasingly difficult to limit and control access to most databases. As we shall see, the Internet is providing drastic and exciting changes in the distribution of authority, knowledge, and control.. 9. The Internet as a Vehicle of Radical Change Mass communications and mass storage have come together to create what is popularly called the Global Village, of which the Internet is argued to be the typical reflection. The analogy between the village and the Internet is persuasive. Like a traditional village, on the Internet all voices can be represented as though in a small
town or village meeting, via various facilities of the Internet, such as bulletin boards and discussion lists and direct electronic communication. Individuals, otherwise isolated, may actually communicate, in a quite intimate way with others who heretofore were(and are in a sense)complete strangers But it is a special kind of village-a global village. The Internet knows no national boundaries. It is immune from control by any particular country or nation, or even corporation. This is because its organisation, if it has any, is decentralised. It is not one computer, but millions of computers owned by different people and organisations who may have diverse interests. Therefore, no nation, no corporation, and no individual can control the flow of information. Some nations have already tried to censor particular types of information, or block the flow of information from particular sources. But there is in fact no way to do it; links among the millions of computers connected to the Internet are far too complex Because electronic communication via the Internet or satellite TV makes it possible for individuals to learn more about each others world, there is the feeling that the world has become smaller, and thus resembles a village, since all individuals, no matter where or how many, can actually participate in each other's lives as if they were present Finally, the Internet's hypertextual qualities promote what is called the deconstruction of the printed document, which promises to return the structure of knowledge to the pre-Gutenberg era of non-linear ways of pursuing knowledge, those that were typical of auditory cultures But there is much about the Internet that makes it quite unlike the idea of the traditional village. As noted in the beginning of this section, knowledge has become democratised all voices have equal weight. In the raditional village, the authority of the elders has almost al ways dominated On the Internet, traditional authority is demolished in favour of equal voice and equal empowerment. Furthermore, knowledge has been externalised The individual becomes in a sense an empty vessel, because all knowledge exists easily external to him. Erudition becomes obsolete, and is replaced by hypertext links to databases. Thus, post-modern man must be an analyser not an erudite In the traditional society, knowledge is linked deeply to individuals and is passed on from one generation to the other by real people who are venerated and valued. Knowledge is therefore in the traditional village valued in a deeply personal way. As we have noted above in several places, knowledge in the technological society has been transformed into the depersonalised database: information that can be bought and sold like any other commodity. And on the Internet, a database is no longer a monolithic mass of information residing in one place but many databases connected to each other all over the world. Provided they are accessible, therefore, they are far more extensive Organisation of the Internet is often described as chaotic. The typical portrayal of a traditional village is the opposite: a highly organised society in which all individuals know their place and their roles. Order is endemic to the traditional society disorder is endemic to the Internet The internet also provides a forum for communication between people of different races, ideologies, religions, and backgrounds, ideas have equal weight. In contrast, the traditional village values history and tradition above all else. The global village--particularly satellite television with its instant communication--values
- 10 - town or village meeting, via various facilities of the Internet, such as bulletin boards and discussion lists and direct electronic communication. Individuals, otherwise isolated, may actually communicate, in a quite intimate way, with others who heretofore were (and are in a sense) complete strangers. But it is a special kind of village - a global village. The Internet knows no national boundaries. It is immune from control by any particular country or nation, or even corporation. This is because its organisation, if it has any, is decentralised. It is not one computer, but millions of computers owned by different people and organisations who may have diverse interests. Therefore, no nation, no corporation, and no individual can control the flow of information. Some nations have already tried to censor particular types of information, or block the flow of information from particular sources. But there is in fact no way to do it; links among the millions of computers connected to the Internet are far too complex. Because electronic communication via the Internet or satellite TV makes it possible for individuals to learn more about each other’s world, there is the feeling that the world has become smaller, and thus resembles a village, since all individuals, no matter where or how many, can actually participate in each other’s lives as if they were present. Finally, the Internet’s hypertextual qualities promote what is called the deconstruction of the printed document, which promises to return the structure of knowledge to the pre-Gutenberg era of non-linear ways of pursuing knowledge, those that were typical of auditory cultures. But there is much about the Internet that makes it quite unlike the idea of the traditional village. As noted in the beginning of this section, knowledge has become democratised: all voices have equal weight. In the traditional village, the authority of the elders has almost always dominated. On the Internet, traditional authority is demolished in favour of equal voice and equal empowerment. Furthermore, knowledge has been externalised. The individual becomes in a sense an empty vessel, because all knowledge exists easily external to him. Erudition becomes obsolete, and is replaced by hypertext links to databases. Thus, post-modern man must be an analyser not an eruditer. In the traditional society, knowledge is linked deeply to individuals and is passed on from one generation to the other by real people who are venerated and valued. Knowledge is therefore in the traditional village valued in a deeply personal way. As we have noted above in several places, knowledge in the technological society has been transformed into the depersonalised database: information that can be bought and sold like any other commodity. And on the Internet, a database is no longer a monolithic mass of information residing in one place, but many databases connected to each other all over the world. Provided they are accessible, therefore, they are far more extensive. Organisation of the Internet is often described as chaotic. The typical portrayal of a traditional village is the opposite: a highly organised society in which all individuals know their place and their roles. Order is endemic to the traditional society. Disorder is endemic to the Internet. The internet also provides a forum for communication between people of different races, ideologies, religions, and backgrounds; ideas have equal weight. In contrast, the traditional village values history and tradition above all else. The global village--particularly satellite television with its instant communication--values
