Ninth Edition Critical hinking Brooke noel moore Richard Parke California State University, Chico Chapter 12 with Nina rosenstand and Anita silver McGraw-Hi Higher Education Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA New York San Francisco St Louis angkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
Revised Pages Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker California State University, Chico Chapter 12 with Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers Critical Thinking Ninth Edition moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd i 6/23/08 3:45:09 PM
Table of Contents Preface xi Acknowledgments xvii About the authors xix Chapter 1 Critical Thinking Basics 1 What Is Critical Thinking? 2 The Basics: Claims, Issues, and Arguments 5 lms Issues 6 Arguments 10 What Arguments Are Not 11 Further Confusions 12 Arguments and Explanations 12 Arguments and Persuasion 13 Two Kinds of Good Arguments 14 Deductive Arguments 14 Inductive Arguments 14 ecognizing Arguments 15 The Two Parts of an Argument 15 The Language of Arguments 15 Other Terms and Concepts 16 Truth 16 Knowledge 1 Value judgments 17 Extraneous Considerations: Logical Window Dressing 19 A Word About the exercises 21 Recap 21 Exercises 22 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 41 Arguments: General Features 41 Conclusions used as premises 42 Unstated Premises and Conclusions 43
Confirming Pages iii Preface xi Acknowledgments xvii About the Authors xix Chapter 1 Critical Thinking Basics 1 What Is Critical Thinking? 2 The Basics: Claims, Issues, and Arguments 5 Claims 6 Issues 6 Arguments 10 What Arguments Are Not 11 Further Confusions 12 Arguments and Explanations 12 Arguments and Persuasion 13 Two Kinds of Good Arguments 14 Deductive Arguments 14 Inductive Arguments 14 Recognizing Arguments 15 The Two Parts of an Argument 15 The Language of Arguments 15 Other Terms and Concepts 16 Truth 16 Knowledge 17 Value Judgments 17 Extraneous Considerations: Logical Window Dressing 19 A Word About the Exercises 21 Recap 21 Exercises 22 Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 41 Arguments: General Features 41 Conclusions Used as Premises 42 Unstated Premises and Conclusions 43 Table of Contents moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd iii 7/2/08 6:11:45 PM
Two Kinds of Arguments 44 Deductive Arguments 44 Inductive Arguments 45 Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 48 Deduction. Induction, and Unstated premises 48 Techniques for Understanding Arguments 50 Clarifying an Argument's Structure 51 Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 53 Evaluating Arguments 54 Exercises Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 69 Vagueness 71 Ambiguity 75 Semantic Ambiguity 76 Grouping Ambiguity 77 Syntactic Ambiguity 80 Generality 82 Defining Terms Purposes of Definitions 84 Kinds of definitions 86 Some Tips on Definitions 86 Writing Argumentative Essays 87 Good Writing Practices 89 Essay Types to Avoid 8 Persuasive Writing Writing in a Diverse Society 91 Recap 92 Exerci Chapter 4 Credibility 105 The Claim and Its source 107 Assessing the Content of the Claim 111 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Personal Observations? 111 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 114
Revised Pages iv CONTENTS Two Kinds of Arguments 44 Deductive Arguments 44 Inductive Arguments 45 Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 48 Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 48 Techniques for Understanding Arguments 50 Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 51 Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 53 Evaluating Arguments 54 Recap 55 Exercises 55 Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 69 Vagueness 71 Ambiguity 75 Semantic Ambiguity 76 Grouping Ambiguity 77 Syntactic Ambiguity 80 Generality 82 Defining Terms 82 Purposes of Definitions 84 Kinds of Definitions 86 Some Tips on Definitions 86 Writing Argumentative Essays 87 Good Writing Practices 89 Essay Types to Avoid 89 Persuasive Writing 90 Writing in a Diverse Society 91 Recap 92 Exercises 93 Chapter 4 Credibility 105 The Claim and Its Source 107 Assessing the Content of the Claim 111 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Personal Observations? 111 Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 114 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd iv 6/23/08 3:45:13 PM
CONTENTS The Credibility of Sources 118 Credibility and the News Media 121 Government Management of the News 122 Bias within the media 123 Talk Radio 126 The Internet, Generally 126 Wikipedia 128 Ble 128 Advertising 130 Exercises 135 Chapter 5 Persuasion Through rhetoric. Common Devices and Techniques 147 Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 148 Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 149 Stereotypes 151 Innuendo 153 Loaded Questions 154 Weaselers 154 Downplayers 156 Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm 157 Hyperbole 158 Proof Surrogates 159 Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 160 Persuasion Using Visual Images 163 169 Exercises 169 Chapter 6 More Rhetorical Devices: Psychological and Related Fallacies 183 The"Argument"from Outrage 184 Scare tactics 186 Other Fallacies based on Emotions 188 Rationalizing 191 Everyone Knows
Revised Pages CONTENTS v The Credibility of Sources 118 Credibility and the News Media 121 Government Management of the News 122 Bias Within the Media 123 Talk Radio 126 The Internet, Generally 126 Wikipedia 128 Blogs 128 Advertising 130 Recap 134 Exercises 135 Chapter 5 Persuasion Through Rhetoric: Common Devices and Techniques 147 Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 148 Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 149 Stereotypes 151 Innuendo 153 Loaded Questions 154 Weaselers 154 Downplayers 156 Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm 157 Hyperbole 158 Proof Surrogates 159 Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 160 Persuasion Using Visual Images 163 Recap 169 Exercises 169 Chapter 6 More Rhetorical Devices: Psychological and Related Fallacies 183 The “Argument” from Outrage 184 Scare Tactics 186 Other Fallacies Based on Emotions 188 Rationalizing 191 Everyone Knows . . . 192 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd v 6/23/08 3:45:13 PM
he Subjectivist Falla The Relativist Fallacy 19 Two Wrongs Make a Right 196 Red Herring/Smoke Screen 197 Recap 199 Exercises 200 Chapter 7 More Fallacies 211 The Ad Hominem Fallacy 211 The Personal Attack ad Hominem 212 The Inconsistency Ad Hominem 212 The Circumstantial ad Hominem 214 Poisoning the Well 214 The Genetic Fallacy 214 “ Positive ad hominem fallacies”215 Straw Man 215 False Dilemma 21 The Perfectionist Fallacy 220 The Line-Drawing Fallacy 220 Misplacing the Burden of Proof 222 Begging the Question 226 Recap 228 Exercises 229 Chapter 8 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 254 Categorical Claims 256 Venn Diagrams 257 Translation into Standard Form 258 The Square of Opposition 263 Three Categorical Operations 265 Conversion 265 266 Contraposition 266 Categorical Syllogisms 273 The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 275
Revised Pages vi CONTENTS The Subjectivist Fallacy 194 The Relativist Fallacy 195 Two Wrongs Make a Right 196 Red Herring/Smoke Screen 197 Recap 199 Exercises 200 Chapter 7 More Fallacies 211 The Ad Hominem Fallacy 211 The Personal Attack Ad Hominem 212 The Inconsistency Ad Hominem 212 The Circumstantial Ad Hominem 214 Poisoning the Well 214 The Genetic Fallacy 214 “Positive Ad Hominem Fallacies” 215 Straw Man 215 False Dilemma 217 The Perfectionist Fallacy 220 The Line-Drawing Fallacy 220 Slippery Slope 221 Misplacing the Burden of Proof 222 Begging the Question 226 Recap 228 Exercises 229 Chapter 8 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 254 Categorical Claims 256 Venn Diagrams 257 Translation into Standard Form 258 The Square of Opposition 263 Three Categorical Operations 265 Conversion 265 Obversion 266 Contraposition 266 Categorical Syllogisms 273 The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 275 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd vi 6/23/08 3:45:14 PM
CONTENTS Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 278 Real-Life Syllogisms 279 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 283 Recap 285 Additional Exercises 286 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments Il Truth-Functional Logic 297 Truth Tables and the Truth-Functional Symbols 298 Claim variables 298 Truth Tables 298 Symbolizing Compound Claims 304 "If"and"Only If"308 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 310 Unless" 312 "Either" 312 Truth-Functional Arguments 314 The Truth-Table method 31 The Short Truth-Table method 318 Deductions 322 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 323 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 328 Conditional proof 334 Recap 338 Additional Exercises 338 Chapter 10 Three Kinds of Inductive Arguments 346 Arguing from the General to the Specific(Inductive Syllogisms) 347 Arguing from the Specific to the General(Inductive Generalizing) 348 Examples 351 Inductive Arguments from Analogy 353 Attacking the Analogy 358 Random Variation, Error Margins, and Confidence Levels 358 Everyday Inductive Arguments 360 Informal Error- Margin and Confidence-Level Indicators 360 Fallacies in Inductive Reasoning 361 Illicit Inductive Conversions 363
Revised Pages CONTENTS vii Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 278 Real-Life Syllogisms 279 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 283 Recap 285 Additional Exercises 286 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 297 Truth Tables and the Truth-Functional Symbols 298 Claim Variables 298 Truth Tables 298 Symbolizing Compound Claims 304 “If” and “Only If” 308 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 310 “Unless” 312 “Either . . .” 312 Truth-Functional Arguments 314 The Truth-Table Method 314 The Short Truth-Table Method 318 Deductions 322 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 323 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 328 Conditional Proof 334 Recap 338 Additional Exercises 338 Chapter 10 Three Kinds of Inductive Arguments 346 Arguing from the General to the Specific (Inductive Syllogisms) 347 Arguing from the Specific to the General (Inductive Generalizing) 348 Examples 351 Inductive Arguments from Analogy 353 Attacking the Analogy 358 Random Variation, Error Margins, and Confidence Levels 358 Everyday Inductive Arguments 360 Informal Error-Margin and Confidence-Level Indicators 360 Fallacies in Inductive Reasoning 361 Illicit Inductive Conversions 363 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd vii 6/23/08 3:45:14 PM
Analogies: The Rest of the Story 364 Polls: Problems and pitfalls 366 Self-Selected Samples 366 Slanted Questions 368 Playing by the Numbers 368 Recap 371 Exercises 373 Chapter 11 Causal Explanation 385 Two Kinds of Explanations 386 Physical Causal Explanations 386 Behavioral Causal Explanations 387 Explanatory Adequacy: A Relative Concept 389 The Importance of Testability 389 Nontestable Explanations 389 Circular Explanations 392 Unnecessary Complexity 392 Forming Hypotheses 393 The Method of Difference 393 The Method of Agreement 394 Causal Mechanisms and Background Knowledge 396 The Best Diagnosis Method 397 General Causal Claims 399 Confirming Causal Hypotheses 400 Controlled Cause-to-Effect Experiments 400 Alternative Methods of Testing Causal Hypotheses in Human Populations 402 Nonexperimental Cause-to-Effect Studies 402 Nonexperimental Effect-to-Cause Studies 403 Experiments on Animals 403 Mistakes in Causal Reasoning 404 Confusing Effect with Cause in Medical Tests 405 Overlooking Statistical Regression 406 Proof by Absence of Disproof 409 Appeal to Anecdote 409 Confusing Explanations with Excuses 410 Causation in the law 410
Revised Pages viii CONTENTS Analogies: The Rest of the Story 364 Polls: Problems and Pitfalls 366 Self-Selected Samples 366 Slanted Questions 368 Playing by the Numbers 368 Recap 371 Exercises 373 Chapter 11 Causal Explanation 385 Two Kinds of Explanations 386 Physical Causal Explanations 386 Behavioral Causal Explanations 387 Explanatory Adequacy: A Relative Concept 389 The Importance of Testability 389 Nontestable Explanations 389 Circular Explanations 392 Unnecessary Complexity 392 Forming Hypotheses 393 The Method of Difference 393 The Method of Agreement 394 Causal Mechanisms and Background Knowledge 396 The Best Diagnosis Method 397 General Causal Claims 399 Confirming Causal Hypotheses 400 Controlled Cause-to-Effect Experiments 400 Alternative Methods of Testing Causal Hypotheses in Human Populations 402 Nonexperimental Cause-to-Effect Studies 402 Nonexperimental Effect-to-Cause Studies 403 Experiments on Animals 403 Mistakes in Causal Reasoning 404 Confusing Effect with Cause in Medical Tests 405 Overlooking Statistical Regression 406 Proof by Absence of Disproof 409 Appeal to Anecdote 409 Confusing Explanations with Excuses 410 Causation in the Law 410 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd viii 6/23/08 3:45:14 PM
CONTENTS Recap 413 Exercises 413 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 436 Value Judgments 437 Moral versus Nonmoral 438 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 438 Moral Principles 440 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 440 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 44 Consequentialism 441 Duty Theory/Deontologism 443 Moral relativism 445 Religious Relativism 445 Religious Absolutism 446 Virtue ethics 446 Moral Deliberation 447 Legal Reasoning 456 Justifying Laws: F our Perspectives 457 Aesthetic Reasoning 460 Eight Aesthetic Principles 460 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 462 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 464 Why Reason Aesthetically? 466 Recap 467 Additional Exercises 469 Appendix 1 Essays for Analysis (and a Few Other Items) 472 Selection 1:"Three strikes and the whole enchilada" 472 Selection 2: " Controlling Irrational Fears After 9/11"473 Selection 3: Excerpts from Federal Court Ruling on the Pledge of Allegiance 475 Selection 4: " Gays'Impact on Marriage Underestimated by Jeff Jacoby 476 Selection 5: " Bush's Environmental Record"by Bob Herbert 478
Revised Pages CONTENTS ix Recap 413 Exercises 413 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 436 Value Judgments 437 Moral Versus Nonmoral 438 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 438 Moral Principles 440 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 440 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 441 Consequentialism 441 Duty Theory/Deontologism 443 Moral Relativism 445 Religious Relativism 445 Religious Absolutism 446 Virtue Ethics 446 Moral Deliberation 447 Legal Reasoning 456 Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 457 Aesthetic Reasoning 460 Eight Aesthetic Principles 460 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 462 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 464 Why Reason Aesthetically? 466 Recap 467 Additional Exercises 469 Appendix 1 Essays for Analysis (and a Few Other Items) 472 Selection 1: “Three Strikes and the Whole Enchilada” 472 Selection 2: “Controlling Irrational Fears After 9/11” 473 Selection 3: Excerpts from Federal Court Ruling on the Pledge of Allegiance 475 Selection 4: “Gays’ Impact on Marriage Underestimated” by Jeff Jacoby 476 Selection 5: “Bush’s Environmental Record” by Bob Herbert 478 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd ix 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM
Selection 6: "Death Penalty Has No Place in the U.S. y Cynthia Tucker 479 Selection 7: " Please, No More Gambling!"(Editorial) 480 Selection 8: Hetero by Choice? by Richard Parker 481 Selection 9: Bonnie and clyde 482 election 10: Disinformation on Judges" by thomas sowell 483 elections 11A and 11B: " Equal Treatment Is Real Issue- by the Rev. Louis P Shel day, and"Gay Marriage"Unnatural Selection 12:"Liberals Love America Like o.J. Loved nicole" by Ann Coulter 486 Selection 13: Is God Part of Integrity? "(Editorial) 487 Selection 14: Calling the Kettle Gay "by Ann Coulter 488 Selections 15A and 15B: Make Fast Food Smoke-Free"from USA Today, and"Don't Overreact to Smoke"by Brennan M. Dawson 489 Selections 16A and 16B: "Buying Notes Makes Sense at Lost-in-Crowd Campuses"from USA Today, and"Buying or Selling Notes Is Wrong"by Moore and parker 491 elections 17A and 17B: Next, Comprehensive Reform of Gun Laws" from USA Today, and"Gun Laws Are No Answer by Alan M. Gottlieb 493 Selection 18: Letter from the national rifle Association 494 Selections 19A and 19B: How Can School Prayer Possibly Hurt? Here's How"from USA Today, and "We Need More Prayer by Armstrong Williams 496 Online Unit: Appendix 2 The Scrapbook of Unusual Issues Glos Answers, Suggestions, and Tips for Triangle Exercises 506 Credits 529 Index 531
Revised Pages x CONTENTS Selection 6: “Death Penalty Has No Place in the U.S.” by Cynthia Tucker 479 Selection 7: “Please, No More Gambling!” (Editorial) 480 Selection 8: “Hetero by Choice?” by Richard Parker 481 Selection 9: Bonnie and Clyde 482 Selection 10: “Disinformation on Judges” by Thomas Sowell 483 Selections 11A and 11B: “Equal Treatment Is Real Issue— Not Marriage” from USA Today, and “Gay Marriage ‘Unnatural’” by the Rev. Louis P. Sheldon 484 Selection 12: “Liberals Love America Like O.J. Loved Nicole” by Ann Coulter 486 Selection 13: “Is God Part of Integrity?” (Editorial) 487 Selection 14: “Calling the Kettle Gay” by Ann Coulter 488 Selections 15A and 15B: “Make Fast Food Smoke-Free” from USA Today, and “Don’t Overreact to Smoke” by Brennan M. Dawson 489 Selections 16A and 16B: “Buying Notes Makes Sense at Lost-in-Crowd Campuses” from USA Today, and “Buying or Selling Notes Is Wrong” by Moore and Parker 491 Selections 17A and 17B: “Next, Comprehensive Reform of Gun Laws” from USA Today, and “Gun Laws Are No Answer” by Alan M. Gottlieb 493 Selection 18: Letter from the National Rifle Association 494 Selections 19A and 19B: “How Can School Prayer Possibly Hurt? Here’s How” from USA Today, and “We Need More Prayer” by Armstrong Williams 496 Online Unit: Appendix 2 The Scrapbook of Unusual Issues Glossary 499 Answers, Suggestions, and Tips for Triangle Exercises 506 Credits 529 Index 531 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd x 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM
Preface im Bull, Ken King, Jon-David Hague-we've gone through editors like corn meal goes through a goose. They were all good men. But this new guy, Mr Georgiev, may be cut from stiffer cloth. Weve never met him His past is mysterious; we've heard stories that he was stolen away from another publisher, and we ve also heard that he escaped single-handedly after being captured during the fighting in Chechnya. We don't know It only took one conference call, though, to learn he meant business. We weren't sure how to begin. Finally, Moore spoke: " Besides the usual updating, we have some serious changes for this edition, "he said. Silence from the other end e 5 C, We want to move a whole chapter, Parker added. Still no response "And there are some important concepts that need dealing with in several Lapters, "Parker continued Yeah, "Moore chimed in. "We have a great new take on the two induc e argument chapters. And more stuff on visuals, "Parker tacked on. A long moment of silence Do it all, "Georgiev said. "Im sending gouijnstook to ride herd on the roject that we were impressed with the decisiveness. We were even more impressed he could pronounce the name of our developmental editor, Susan Goui instook "Probably the linguistic training they get in the secret service or the KGB or whatever, " Moore guessed. And so, under the gentle urging and occasional whiplash of Susan G and with some good advice from a phalanx of reviewers, we have once again produced what we hope is a better book than the one that went before. See the chapter-by-chapter listings following for a more detailed look at what's new. WELCOME TO THE NINTH EDITION Yes, we know: nine editions. It was a surprise the first time a young professor came up to us at a meeting and told us he was teaching from this book, and that its first edition had been his text when he took his own critical thinking course. Now, shockingly, we hear from students using the book whose parents used it as undergraduates. Good grief Keeping Up We hope our efforts to keep the book topical, readable, and, most importantly teachable have been responsible for the remarkable loyalty adopters have shown toward it over the years-we are both gratified and appreciative. This edition continues the process. Examples and exercises have been updated from one end of the book to the other As we get older(Moore comments on Parkers wrinkles; Parker wonders what became of Moores hair), it is more and more important to remember that what's moderately recent news for us is ancient history for most of our students
Revised Pages xi Preface J im Bull, Ken King, Jon-David Hague—we’ve gone through editors like corn meal goes through a goose. They were all good men. But this new guy, Mr. Georgiev, may be cut from stiffer cloth. We’ve never met him. His past is mysterious; we’ve heard stories that he was stolen away from another publisher, and we’ve also heard that he escaped single-handedly after being captured during the fighting in Chechnya. We don’t know. It only took one conference call, though, to learn he meant business. We weren’t sure how to begin. Finally, Moore spoke: “Besides the usual updating, we have some serious changes for this edition,” he said. Silence from the other end. “We want to move a whole chapter,” Parker added. Still no response. “And there are some important concepts that need dealing with in several chapters,” Parker continued. “Yeah,” Moore chimed in. “We have a great new take on the two inductive argument chapters.” “And more stuff on visuals,” Parker tacked on. A long moment of silence followed, then: “Do it all,” Georgiev said. “I’m sending Gouijnstook to ride herd on the project.” We were impressed with the decisiveness. We were even more impressed that he could pronounce the name of our developmental editor, Susan Gouijnstook. “Probably the linguistic training they get in the secret service or the KGB or whatever,” Moore guessed. And so, under the gentle urging and occasional whiplash of Susan G., and with some good advice from a phalanx of reviewers, we have once again produced what we hope is a better book than the one that went before. See the chapter-by-chapter listings following for a more detailed look at what’s new. WELCOME TO THE NINTH EDITION Yes, we know: nine editions. It was a surprise the first time a young professor came up to us at a meeting and told us he was teaching from this book, and that its first edition had been his text when he took his own critical thinking course. Now, shockingly, we hear from students using the book whose parents used it as undergraduates. Good grief. Keeping Up We hope our efforts to keep the book topical, readable, and, most importantly, teachable have been responsible for the remarkable loyalty adopters have shown toward it over the years—we are both gratified and appreciative. This edition continues the process. Examples and exercises have been updated from one end of the book to the other. As we get older (Moore comments on Parker’s wrinkles; Parker wonders what became of Moore’s hair), it is more and more important to remember that what’s moderately recent news for us is ancient history for most of our students. moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd xi 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM