REASONING SKILLS SUCCESS N20 MINUTES A DAY
REASONING SKILLS SUCCESS IN 20 MINUTES A DAY
REASONING SKILLS SUCCESS iN 20 MINUTES A DAY 2nd edition LEARNINGEXPRESS NEWY。RK
NEW YORK REASONING SKILLS SUCCESS IN 20 MINUTES A DAY 2nd Edition ®
Copyright o 2005 Learning Express, LLC All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions Published in the United States by Learning Express, LLC, New York Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reasoning skills success in 20 minutes a day. -2nd ed p cm. ISBN1-57685-493-0 1. Reasoning(Psychology)I. Title: Reasoning skills success in twenty minutes a day. I L. Title BF442C482005 15343-dc22 2005047185 Printed in the United States of america 987654321 Second edition ISBN1-57685-493-0 For information on Learning Express, other Learning Express products, or bulk sales, please write to us at: LearningExpress 8th floor New York NY 10006 www.learnatest.com
Copyright © 2005 LearningExpress, LLC. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Reasoning skills success in 20 minutes a day.—2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN 1-57685-493-0 1. Reasoning (Psychology) I. Title: Reasoning skills success in twenty minutes a day. II. Title. BF442.C48 2005 153.4'3—dc22 2005047185 Printed in the United States of America 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Second Edition ISBN 1-57685-493-0 For information on LearningExpress, other LearningExpress products, or bulk sales, please write to us at: LearningExpress 55 Broadway 8th Floor New York, NY 10006 Or visit us at: www.learnatest.com
Contents HOW TO USE THIS BOOK PRETEST LESSON 1 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills The importance of critical thinking and reasoning skills, justifying your decisions, the difference between reason and emotion LESSON 2 Problem-Solving Strategies Identifying the main issue of a problem and its parts, prioritizing issues LESSON 3 Thinking vs. Knowing Distinguishing between fact and opinion, determining whether facts are true or tentative truths LESSON 4 Who Makes the Claim? Evaluating credibility: recognizing bias, determining level of expertise; the special case of eyewitnesses LESSON 5 Partial Claims and Half-Truths Recognizing incomplete claims, understanding the true value of studies and averages
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK ix PRETEST 1 LESSON 1 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills 15 The importance of critical thinking and reasoning skills, justifying your decisions, the difference between reason and emotion LESSON 2 Problem-Solving Strategies 21 Identifying the main issue of a problem and its parts, prioritizing issues LESSON 3 Thinking vs. Knowing 27 Distinguishing between fact and opinion, determining whether facts are true or tentative truths LESSON 4 Who Makes the Claim? 33 Evaluating credibility: recognizing bias, determining level of expertise; the special case of eyewitnesses LESSON 5 Partial Claims and Half-Truths 41 Recognizing incomplete claims, understanding the true value of studies and averages Contents v
CONTENTS LESSON 6 What's in a Word? Recognizing the art of subtle persuasion: euphemisms, dysphemisms, and biased questions 三ssoN7 Working with Argi Understanding deductive reasoning, identifying the overall conclusion and premises of a deductive argument LESSON 8 Evaluating Evidence Looking carefully at evidence to assess validity; checking for credibility and reasonableness LESSON 9 Recognizing a good argument Making a strong case: a conclusion and premises that are clear and complete with consideration of the other side LESSON 10 Putting It All Togethe 71 Reviewing lessons 1-9 LESSON 11 Logical Fallacies: Appeals to Emotion 75 Recognizing logical fallacies that intend to sway your emotions: scare tactics, flattery peer pressure, and appeals to pity LESSON 12 Logical Fallacies: The Impostors Recognizing four logical fa circular reasoning, and two wrongs make a right LESSON 13 Logical Fallacies: Distracters and Distorters id hominem, red her, On logical fallacies that distort the issue LESSON 14 Why Did It Happen Looking for explanations that are relevant and testable, rejecting explanations that are circula LESSON 15 Inductive Reasoning Drawing logical conclusions from evidence, looking for premises likely to lead to the conclusion LESSON 16 Jumping to Conclusions Recognizing inductive fallacies like hasty generalizations, biased generalizations, and non sequiturs LESSON 17 Inductive re Determining cause; recognizing post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacies and"chicken or the egg arguments
LESSON 6 What’s in a Word? 47 Recognizing the art of subtle persuasion: euphemisms, dysphemisms, and biased questions LESSON 7 Working with Arguments 53 Understanding deductive reasoning, identifying the overall conclusion and premises of a deductive argument LESSON 8 Evaluating Evidence 59 Looking carefully at evidence to assess validity; checking for credibility and reasonableness LESSON 9 Recognizing a Good Argument 65 Making a strong case: a conclusion and premises that are clear and complete with consideration of the other side LESSON 10 Putting It All Together 71 Reviewing Lessons 1–9 LESSON 11 Logical Fallacies: Appeals to Emotion 75 Recognizing logical fallacies that intend to sway your emotions: scare tactics, flattery, peer pressure, and appeals to pity LESSON 12 Logical Fallacies: The Impostors 81 Recognizing four logical fallacies: no in-betweens, slippery slope, circular reasoning, and two wrongs make a right LESSON 13 Logical Fallacies: Distracters and Distorters 87 Recognizing three common logical fallacies that distort the issue: ad hominem, red herring, and straw man LESSON 14 Why Did It Happen? 93 Looking for explanations that are relevant and testable, rejecting explanations that are circular LESSON 15 Inductive Reasoning 99 Drawing logical conclusions from evidence, looking for premises likely to lead to the conclusion LESSON 16 Jumping to Conclusions 103 Recognizing inductive fallacies like hasty generalizations, biased generalizations, and non sequiturs LESSON 17 Inductive Reasoning 109 Determining cause; recognizing post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacies and “chicken or the egg” arguments –CONTENTS– v i
c。 NTENTS LESSON 18 Numbers never lie Checking statistics for a reliable source, adequate sample size, and a representative sample; looking out for"apples and oranges LESSON 19 Problem Solving revisited Solving logic problems that test common sense, ability to recognize good evidence, and ability to draw logical conclusions LESSON 20 Putting It All Together Reviewing Lessons 11-19 POSTTEST 135 APPENDDX How to Prepare for a Test 147 Making a study plan; strategies for success on the exam
LESSON 18 Numbers Never Lie 115 Checking statistics for a reliable source, adequate sample size, and a representative sample; looking out for “apples and oranges” LESSON 19 Problem Solving Revisited 123 Solving logic problems that test common sense, ability to recognize good evidence, and ability to draw logical conclusions LESSON 20 Putting It All Together 129 Reviewing Lessons 11–19 POSTTEST 135 APPENDIX How to Prepare for a Test 147 Making a study plan; strategies for success on the exam – CONTENTS– vii
How to Use This book his book is designed to help you improve your critical thinking and reasoning skills in 20 short les- ay. If you read through Fri cises carefully, you should see dramatic improvement in your ability to think critically and to soly problems logically and effectively by the end of your month of study Although each lesson is designed to be a skill builder on its own, it is important that you proceed through this book in order, from Lesson I through Lesson 20. Like most other skills, critical thinking and reasoning develop in layers. Each lesson in this book builds upon the ideas discussed in those before it. Each lesson provides several exercises that give you the opportunity to practice the skills you learn through- out the book. To help you be sure you're on the right track, you'll also find answers and explanations for these exer cise sets. Each lesson also provides practical suggestions for how to continue practicing the taught skills throughout the rest of the day and week-and the rest of your life. In addition, two special review lessons go over the key skills and concepts in each half of the book and provide you with practice applying them in practical, real-life situations. To help you gauge your progress, this book contains a pretest and a posttest. You should take the pretest before you start Lesson 1. Then, after you've finished Lesson 20, take the posttest. The tests contain different questions but assess the same skills, so you will be able to see how much your critical thinking and reasoning skills have improved after completing the lessons in this book. Be an Active listener and observer To make the most of this text, it,'s important to remember that critical thinking and reasoning skills are necessary for just about every aspect of life-whether personal, professional, or academic. Thats why it's so important to become an active listener and observer
This book is designed to help you improve your critical thinking and reasoning skills in 20 short lessons of 20 minutes a day. If you read one chapter a day, Monday through Friday, and do all the exercises carefully, you should see dramatic improvement in your ability to think critically and to solve problems logically and effectively by the end of your month of study. Although each lesson is designed to be a skill builder on its own, it is important that you proceed through this book in order, from Lesson 1 through Lesson 20. Like most other skills, critical thinking and reasoning develop in layers. Each lesson in this book builds upon the ideas discussed in those before it. Each lesson provides several exercises that give you the opportunity to practice the skills you learn throughout the book. To help you be sure you’re on the right track, you’ll also find answers and explanations for these exercise sets. Each lesson also provides practical suggestions for how to continue practicing the taught skills throughout the rest of the day and week—and the rest of your life. In addition, two special review lessons go over the key skills and concepts in each half of the book and provide you with practice applying them in practical, real-life situations. To help you gauge your progress, this book contains a pretest and a posttest. You should take the pretest before you start Lesson 1. Then, after you’ve finished Lesson 20, take the posttest. The tests contain different questions but assess the same skills, so you will be able to see how much your critical thinking and reasoning skills have improved after completing the lessons in this book. Be an Active Listener and Observer To make the most of this text, it’s important to remember that critical thinking and reasoning skills are necessary for just about every aspect of life—whether personal, professional, or academic. That’s why it’s so important to become an active listener and observer. How to Use This Book ix
HowT。 USE THS E。oK People often come to conclusions based on what decision or solution will be. To that end, listen to all they think or feel rather than on the evidence before sides of an argument, and examine a situation from them. They make decisions based on what they want to various points of view. If you do, your decisions will be hear rather than what is really being said; they take much more sound and you'l be able to solve problems action based on what they imagine to be true rather more effectively than what is actually the case. But by really listening to what people say and how they say it( facial expressions Separate Feelings from Facts nd tone often say much more than words themselves), This book will address, in more detail, the difference ou help ensure that you will be reacting to what's between fact and opinion later on, but the distinction eally being said, not just to what you want to hear. is so important that it's worth mentioning now. What Similarly, by paying careful attention to and most often clouds people's ability to reason effectively thinking critically about every situation, you'll help is their emotions. Indeed, this is a natural tendency, ensure that the decisions you make and the conclusions but if you give feelings precedence over reason, you you come to will be justified. For example, if a place often end up making poor decisions. This is not to say lace that makes you uncomfortable feelings generally you should but just be sure they're not overriding sciously, in our environment. The more you can point to as justification for your thoughts, feelings, and actions, Think before You Act the more logical your decisions and actions will be People are often under pressure to make quick deci- Much of this book will be devoted to helping you sions. But with the exception of emergency situations, build your observation skills. Meanwhile, here are a few it's usually best to take time to reason things through pointers to help you not only as you work through this Hasty decisions are less productive in the long run book, but in everything you do because theyre usually not the most logical or informed decisions. If you take a little time to con- Keep an open Mind ider all sides and separate feelings from facts, you're It is very rarely the case that there is only one possible much more likely to make a wise decision or find an answer to a problem or only one"right way to think or effective solution act. Even in math, where things seem to be black and Of course, sometimes making a quick decision white, there is usually more than one way to solve a the only option, like when taking a timed test or in ar problem. When it comes to making decisions, especially emergency situation. That,'s why it's so important to ose that involve other people, remember that between build your reasoning skills now and make them a part black and white, there are a thousand shades of gray. of your everyday thought process. Then when you are You may prefer one shade over another, but that doesn 't pressed for time, you'll be able to reason through the necessarily cancel out the other colors situation quickly and effectively If any of this sounds confusing, don,'t worry- Consider all sid each of these ideas will be explained thoroughly in the It is easy to make the mistake of coming to a conclu- lessons that follow. What's important is that you work on sion or making a decision before all sides of an argu- developing these skills, starting with Lesson 1,"Critical ment are heard. However, the more complete a picture Thinking and Reasoning Skills you can get of a given situation, the more effective your
People often come to conclusions based on what they think or feel rather than on the evidence before them. They make decisions based on what they want to hear rather than what is really being said; they take action based on what they imagine to be true rather than what is actually the case. But by really listening to what people say and how they say it (facial expressions and tone often say much more than words themselves), you help ensure that you will be reacting to what’s really being said, not just to what you want to hear. Similarly, by paying careful attention to and thinking critically about every situation, you’ll help ensure that the decisions you make and the conclusions you come to will be justified. For example, if a place looks unsavory to you, analyze what it is about that place that makes you uncomfortable. Feelings generally come from things we are able to sense, even subconsciously, in our environment. The more you can point to as justification for your thoughts, feelings, and actions, the more logical your decisions and actions will be. Much of this book will be devoted to helping you build your observation skills. Meanwhile, here are a few pointers to help you not only as you work through this book, but in everything you do. Keep an Open Mind It is very rarely the case that there is only one possible answer to a problem or only one “right” way to think or act. Even in math, where things seem to be black and white, there is usually more than one way to solve a problem. When it comes to making decisions, especially those that involve other people, remember that between black and white, there are a thousand shades of gray. You may prefer one shade over another, but that doesn’t necessarily cancel out the other colors. Consider All Sides It is easy to make the mistake of coming to a conclusion or making a decision before all sides of an argument are heard. However, the more complete a picture you can get of a given situation, the more effective your decision or solution will be. To that end, listen to all sides of an argument, and examine a situation from various points of view. If you do, your decisions will be much more sound and you’ll be able to solve problems more effectively. Separate Feelings from Facts This book will address, in more detail, the difference between fact and opinion later on, but the distinction is so important that it’s worth mentioning now. What most often clouds people’s ability to reason effectively is their emotions. Indeed, this is a natural tendency, but if you give feelings precedence over reason, you often end up making poor decisions. This is not to say that you shouldn’t consider your feelings—of course you should—but just be sure they’re not overriding the facts. Think before You Act People are often under pressure to make quick decisions. But with the exception of emergency situations, it’s usually best to take time to reason things through. Hasty decisions are less productive in the long run because they’re usually not the most logical or informed decisions. If you take a little time to consider all sides and separate feelings from facts, you’re much more likely to make a wise decision or find an effective solution. Of course, sometimes making a quick decision is the only option, like when taking a timed test or in an emergency situation. That’s why it’s so important to build your reasoning skills now and make them a part of your everyday thought process. Then when you are pressed for time, you’ll be able to reason through the situation quickly and effectively. If any of this sounds confusing, don’t worry— each of these ideas will be explained thoroughly in the lessons that follow. What’s important is that you work on developing these skills, starting with Lesson 1, “Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills.” –HOW TO USE THIS BOOK– x
